Expansion and Governance of the Catholic Monarchs

The Conquest of the Canary Islands

Castile and Portugal vied for the rights of conquest of the Canary Islands. Finally, in 1479, Portugal relinquished the islands under the Treaty of Alcaçovas. After the Castilian occupation of some islands in the late Middle Ages, the Catholic Monarchs of Castile decided to conquer the remaining islands: Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife. These islands (Crown islands) were governed by representatives of the monarchs. Elsewhere (Manorial Islands), it was the lord who acted as law enforcement and justice.

The process of conquest was very similar to that which was later applied in America. It was carried out by individuals who signed contracts (called capitulations or chapters) with the Crown, and was completed in 1496. The indigenous population, the Guanches, who had a very low level of economic and cultural development, were soon exterminated. The spread of diseases from Europe was the key factor in this demographic disaster. Sugar cane became the main crop.

Diplomatic Relations and the Union with Portugal

Relations with Portugal were based on an intense marriage policy in order to bring the two countries closer together. Two of the daughters of the Catholic Monarchs married Portuguese princes. Under these marriages, Philip II successfully claimed the throne of Portugal in 1580.

The Discovery of America and Territorial Treaties

However, the discovery of America led to strong conflicts between both countries. These were resolved by two treaties that supplemented the Treaty of Alcaçovas, which had become insufficient. The Bull Inter Caetera was signed in 1493, establishing a boundary line that divided the land into two zones of influence. Not content with this agreement, the Portuguese negotiated the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which widened the divide, aligning it to 370 leagues west of the Azores.

Establishing a Modern Authoritarian State

While each area retained its own institutions, the Catholic Monarchs worked towards establishing a modern authoritarian state. The powerful nobility were controlled, yet they collaborated with the monarchs in exchange for new lands and the reinforcement of certain privileges. Regarding the clergy, the monarchs sought to control the church hierarchy. The Crown won the Royal Patronage (Regional Board) from the Pope and controlled the military orders, which were a source of substantial income. Courts were convened regularly.

Key Administrative Institutions of the Monarchy

The key institutions were the Councils, which could be territorial (such as Castile, Aragon, and the Indies) or thematic, dealing with individual cases. Other major bodies included:

• The Royal Council: A consultative body that excluded the high nobility.
• The Inquisition: Created in 1480 to pursue Judaizing practices and control converted Jews. It held extraordinary importance; by extending its jurisdiction to all territories, it became a tool for the monarchy to extend its authority.
• The Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad): Created for criminal investigations and key to achieving peace in the kingdom.
• The Chanceries: The highest organs of justice.
• Corregidores: Magistrates who acted as delegates of royal power in towns and cities, controlling municipal politics.

The Crown of Aragon and the Viceroy

In Aragon, the pact-based character of the monarchy hindered royal government. The Viceroy served as the monarch's representative within the Crown of Aragon.