Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for University

Fundamental Concepts in Biology: Q&A

1. 1. What kind of organelles do photosynthetic Protista contain?

   Answer: Multicellular and Unicellular (Note: This answer describes types of Protista, not organelles.)

2. 2. What is the main body of Fungi called?

   Answer: Mycelium

3. 3. Plants produce what out for survival?

   Answer: Oxygen

4. 4. What are the two transport plant tissues called?

   Answer: Xylem and Phloem

5. 5. What is the smallest group of Bryophytes?

   Answer: Hornworts

6. 6. A plant with a fibrous root system and leaves with parallel venation would also have?

   Answer: None of the above

7. 7. Where does pollen transfer on plants to start reproduction?

   Answer: Stigma

8. 8. If a farmer wanted a more loosely packed cluster of grapes, he would most likely spray the immature bunches

1. Articular Capsule

The articular capsule is a sleeve-shaped membrane that surrounds the whole joint cavity. Its primary mission is to provide stability to the entire joint. In some areas, this capsule is very thick and strong, almost functioning as a ligament. In other joints, it can be very thin or almost nonexistent.

2. Synovial Membrane

The synovial membrane is a sac-like structure that, along with the joint capsule, surrounds the joints and transforms the area into a closed compartment. It provides the inner lining of the joint cavity, which is smooth and shiny. It focuses on the formation of a highly viscous liquid called synovium (or synovial fluid), which has two distinct functions:

• Provide proper lubrication for the articular cartilage.

Vacuoles: Cytoplasmic Cavities

Vacuoles are cavities within the cytoplasm visible under an optical microscope. Their primary functions include:

• Digestive Vacuoles: Facilitate digestion through the fusion of phagosomes or pinosomes with lysosomes.
• Contractile (Pulsed) Vacuoles: Responsible for osmotic control in freshwater organisms, such as amoebas and paramecia.
• Cell Sap Vacuoles: Involved in osmotic regulation and the storage of substances in plant cells.

The Cytoskeleton: Microtubules and Microfilaments

Microtubules

Microtubules are cylindrical structures composed of tubulin protein molecules arranged in a helical pattern. These structures are dynamic, capable of dissociating and reorganizing as needed.

Microfilaments

Microfilaments are tiny strands...

Adrenal Cortex Secretion Control

Control of secretion by the adrenal cortex is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. Various other mechanisms also influence the release of adrenal cortical hormones.

Negative Feedback and ACTH Regulation

The regulation of ACTH secretion involves a negative feedback mechanism centered on cortisol and its derivative, cortisone. An increase in cortisol levels inhibits ACTH secretion, while a drop stimulates it. Furthermore, an excess of cortisol leads to a decrease in Corticotropin-Releasing Factor (CRF).

Circadian Rhythm of Cortical Hormones

The levels of adrenal cortical hormones depend on circadian rhythms and can be influenced by certain drugs. Cortisol exhibits a marked circadian rhythm, reaching its highest

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Phloem Tissue: The Elaborated Sap Driver

Regarding the elaborated sap driver: The difference between xylem elements and conductors in their living, functional state is that phloem may also contain laticifers and idioblasts. The phloem procambium resulted in secondary phloem produced by the phloem cambium, possessing an axial or radial parenchymatic system. This structure was noted in 1858, related to Nägeli's ploidy and the cortex (Greek term).

Cellular Types of Phloem

• Axial Conductive System

  Sieve tube elements (sieve tube cells).

• Support (Sostén)

  Fibers and sclereids.

• Parenchymatic System

  Storehouse and translocation of substances.

• Radial System

  Parenchymatic cells (phloem rays) observed in secondary growth.

Sieve Cells

Sieve cells are long, thin elements...

Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Nervous System

Neurons are fundamental cells of the nervous system, representing the anatomical and functional unit of the human brain. They are specialized cells designed to receive, carry, and transmit electrochemical signals called nerve impulses.

Neurons are irreplaceable. Once they age, are injured, or die, they cannot be replaced. This is because these cells are primarily formed during the prenatal period of gestation. A child is born with the largest number of neurons, approximately 100 billion, which immediately begin to decrease in number.

Glial Cells: Supporting the Neurons

The name 'glial' comes from the Greek root 'glia,' meaning concrete. These cells lack axons and are not essential for directly...

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates have the general formula C_nH_2nO_n, also written as CHO or C_n(H₂O)_n.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides, also called simple sugars, include:

• Ribose
• Deoxyribose
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose

Oligosaccharides

Oligosaccharides have the general formula C_nH_2n-2O_n-1, for example C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁.

Disaccharides

• Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
• Lactose (glucose + galactose)
• Maltose (glucose + glucose)
• Cellobiose (glucose + glucose)

Trisaccharides

• Raffinose

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides have the general formula (C₆H₁₀O₅)_n.

Homopolysaccharides

• Starch
• Glycogen
• Cellulose
• Chitin

Heteropolysaccharides

• Agar agar
• Pectin
• Hyaluronic acid
• Chondroitin
• Heparin

Lipids

Lipids are composed mainly of C, H, O, P and N.

Saponifiable Lipids

Saponifiable lipids can be hydrolyzed to form soap....

Ancilostomose

Agente: Ancylostoma duodenale

Morfologia

Machos, fêmeas e ovos. Identificada por um par de dentes.

Habitat

Os vermes adultos vivem na mucosa do intestino delgado: jejuno, íleo e duodeno.

Transmissão

Penetração das larvas por via oral ou transcutânea.

• A larva L3 penetra na pele e migra para o intestino, onde amadurece e causa a doença.
• Após o amadurecimento, as fêmeas liberam ovos que saem pelas fezes (ovos e larvas).
• Ou as larvas penetram e podem migrar para os pulmões e artérias pulmonares, podendo causar tosse e expulsão pela boca.

Patogenia

• As larvas causam hemorragia, pois possuem um par de dentes afiados.
• Ao migrarem para o pulmão, causam lesões com sangramento e pneumonite difusa, entre outras.
• As lesões podem causar fenômenos

1. Anaplasia e diferenças entre tumores benignos e malignos quanto às suas características

Anaplasia é a falta de diferenciação celular, ou seja, o grau em que as células parenquimatosas deixam de se assemelhar às células normais, tanto morfológica quanto funcionalmente.

Tumores benignos: são formados por células bem diferenciadas. Suas massas permanecem em seus sítios de origem, não infiltram tecidos adjacentes e não metastatizam. O crescimento costuma ser lento e, geralmente, com período de latência longo. São facilmente passíveis de ressecção cirúrgica.

Tumores malignos: são formados por células indiferenciadas e de crescimento autônomo e descoordenado. Ao contrário dos benignos, invadem os tecidos adjacentes e metastatizam...