Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for University

Atmospheric Pressure and Isobars

Isobars: Lines or curves join points with the same pressure. They are represented every 4 mb.

Anticyclones: Areas with higher atmospheric pressure.

Tempests (storms): Areas of below-atmospheric pressure.

Air moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.

Moisture

• Absolute humidity: The amount of water vapor present in a given volume of air; measured in g/cm³.
• Relative humidity: The ratio between the amount of water vapor that a volume of air contains and the maximum amount that the same volume can contain at the same temperature.
• Dew point: The temperature at which water vapor in air begins to condense.

Weather Forecast

Gale

Gale: In low atmospheric pressure, inward winds carry moisture to form clouds and precipitation...

Se dividirmos em contato, o agressor é um agente com especificidade.

Células do Sistema Imune

• Polimorfonucleares (poli): neutrófilos, eosinófilos, basófilos e mastócitos.
• Mononucleares: monócitos, macrófagos, células dendríticas, linfócitos e células NK.

Órgãos Linfoides

• Centrais: medula óssea, timo e medula espinhal.
• Periféricos: tonsilas, baço, linfonodos e gânglios.

Barreiras de Defesa

• Barreira física: impede a adesão do agressor.
• Barreira química: mesma função, por meio de lágrimas e lisozima nos olhos.
• Barreira biológica: a microbiota normal.
• Barreira fagocítica: leucócitos realizam adesão, englobação e digestão. Fundamental para a inflamação.

Inflamação

A inflamação destrói o agente agressor e promove o reparo...

Immunity Against Extracellular Bacteria

Cells directly or indirectly involved in immunity against extracellular bacteria include: B lymphocytes / Th2 lymphocytes.

Adaptive Immunity to Viral Infections

Participants in adaptive immunity against viral infections include: NK cells / macrophages / CD4 T lymphocytes / CD8 T lymphocytes.

Mechanisms of T-Cell Induced Apoptosis

The "kiss of death" induced by a T lymphocyte to an infected cell can occur via: Unlocking granule content / FAS-Ligand interaction with FAS.

Intracellular Immunity Against Bacteria

Involved in intracellular immunity against bacteria: NK cells / macrophages / neutrophils / IgG-producing B cells / CD8 T lymphocytes.

Viral Evasion Mechanisms

Viruses induce the synthesis of viruquinas, which...

Embryology of the Respiratory System

From the fourth week of development, the lung appears as an evagination or outline of the foregut. The laryngotracheal groove appears on the ventral surface of the pharynx; this groove deepens to form the laryngotracheal diverticulum, which grows in a ventrocaudal direction.

Through a process of separation, the tracheoesophageal septum develops, effectively separating the esophagus from the laryngotracheal tube. From this laryngotracheal tube, the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs will eventually develop. The endoderm forms the lining epithelium and glands, while the connective tissue, cartilage, and muscle develop from the splanchnic mesenchyme.

Development of the Larynx

The mesenchyme corresponding to the...

As a result of cephalocaudal and lateral folding, a portion of the yolk sac lined by endoderm is incorporated into the embryo to form the primitive gut. The primitive gut is divided into three parts: foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The midgut communicates with the yolk sac through the temporary omphalomesenteric duct.

Foregut Development

It extends from the oropharyngeal membrane to the second portion of the duodenum (ampulla of Vater).

Esophagus Formation

Its primordium arises from the tracheoesophageal septum around the 4th week. The endoderm proliferates to temporarily occlude the lumen. At the end of the embryonic period, the lumen recanalizes, and the endoderm differentiates into stratified squamous epithelium. The muscle of the upper 1/3 is...

Inflammation Response Purposes

Flash: Inflammation occurs for two primary purposes:

1. To destroy or neutralize the offending agent and/or, if not possible, to limit its effects.
2. To facilitate the repair of the injury.

(This response is seen in serous, catarrhal, hemorrhagic, and purulent inflammations.)

Infectious Agents

Agents involved in infections include Gram-positive cocci, Enterobacteriaceae, and Haemophilus.

Enterobacteriaceae Characteristics

Enterobacteriaceae are Gram-negative, enteric, straight, non-spore-forming rods. They ferment glucose, reduce nitrate to nitrite, grow on ordinary media, and are oxidase-negative. MacConkey Agar is the medium utilized for the isolation of most enterobacteria.

Diagnostic Media for Enterobacteriaceae

1. Lysine

Subcellular Fractionation: Isolating Cell Components

Subcellular fractionation is the process used to separate and isolate intracellular molecules and organelles from cells.

Stages of Subcellular Fractionation

1. Extraction
2. Homogenization
3. Differential Centrifugation

Extraction (Tissue Sampling)

This stage involves obtaining a tissue sample from a living organism, as tissues contain the cells required for analysis.

Homogenization

The tissue is blended or dissolved in a benign medium (under appropriate conditions) to disrupt the cell membranes and release the cell contents.

Differential Centrifugation

A procedure used to separate cellular components based on size and density, resulting in distinct fractions.

Key Fractions Separated by Centrifugation

• Nuclear

Asterids: Families, Characteristics and Economic Importance

Clade asterids include the orders Ericales, Gentianales, Lamiales, Asterales and related groups. Representative families include Theaceae, Ericaceae, Sapotaceae, Ebenaceae, Actinidiaceae, Sarraceniaceae, Rubiaceae, Oleaceae, Apocynaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Campanulaceae and Asteraceae.

Common traits of asterids include iridoids, tropane alkaloids, sympetalous (fused-petal) flowers, and ovules with a single integument. These angiosperms show the following features:

• Ericales: Family Ebenaceae includes important tropical fruit trees such as persimmon (Diospyros). Family Sapotaceae is important for industry and medicine; gum and argan oil are extracted from its members.

Immune Responses and Definitions

Innate Immune Response

Natural Barriers: Antimicrobial skin, mucous secretions, pH, iron sequestration (not free), normal microbiota.

Inflammatory Innate Immunity Cells: Eosinophils, basophils, mast cells.

Phagocytes: Dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils.

Cytotoxic Cells: NK cells, NKT lymphocytes, Tγ/δ lymphocytes, B1 lymphocytes.

Adaptive Immune Response

Involves humoral immunity and T cells. Key cells include B lymphocytes (B2) and T lymphocytes (CD4/CD8).

Immunity

A response aggressively directed against foreign substances.

Tolerance

A lack of active immune mechanism against a substance (tolerogen), which can be self or foreign, acquired over time.

Hypersensitivity

An exaggerated, nonspecific response leading...

Population and Community Dynamics

The functional units of an ecosystem are populations of organisms through which energy and nutrients circulate. A population is a group of organisms of the same species that share the same space and time. Population groups within an ecosystem interact in various ways. These populations form an interdependent community, which encompasses the biotic portion of the ecosystem.

Understanding Ecosystems

It is useful to categorize environments as terrestrial or aquatic. The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by plant ecologist Sir Arthur George Tansley to emphasize that each habitat is an integrated whole. A system is a set of interdependent parts that function as a unit, requiring specific inputs and outputs.

Essential