Spanish Monarchy in Crisis: 17th Century Revolts & Golden Age
The Crisis of 1640
To secure victory in the Thirty Years' War, the Count-Duke of Olivares, Philip IV's favorite, proposed the creation of the Union of Arms. This initiative required all kingdoms within the Spanish Monarchy to contribute men and money, but critically, without adequately assessing their individual wealth and population. Widespread opposition to Olivares' centralizing policies and the King's favorite ultimately triggered a series of general rebellions.
The Revolt of Catalonia (1640-1652)
The immediate trigger for the Catalan revolt was the abuse of royal troops stationed on the Catalan front during the war. However, the underlying cause was a deep rejection of Olivares' centralist policies. The Catalans refused to pay new taxes, leading to a peasant uprising. The segadors (reapers) entered Barcelona and assassinated the Viceroy. In a dramatic move, they offered the County of Barcelona to the French King, Louis XIII. After twelve years of conflict, the rebels eventually surrendered.
The Revolt of Portugal (1640-1668)
Angered by new military fronts and excessive taxation, the Portuguese revolted, proclaiming the Duke of Braganza as their new king, John IV. This rebellion was primarily noble in nature, driven by anti-Castilian sentiment and a strong desire for independence. With support from France and England, Portugal successfully gained its independence in 1668.
Spain's Golden Age: Society and Culture
Aristocratic Values and Social Structure
During Spain's Golden Age (Siglo de Oro), Spanish society remained profoundly shaped by the aristocratic and religious values of previous centuries. This mentality meant that typically noble values such as "honor" and "dignity" were claimed and upheld by all social groups. Duels, for instance, were a common manifestation of this mindset; any perceived violation of a noble's honor immediately led to a settlement by the sword. It was not until the eighteenth century that dueling was legally prohibited.
Furthermore, there was a widespread rejection of manual labor, which was considered "vile" – meaning it disgraced the "honor" and "dignity" of anyone who engaged in it. This social hierarchy was underpinned by numerous privileges enjoyed by the nobility, including:
- Exemption from paying direct taxes
- Immunity from imprisonment for debt
- Protection from torture
- Confinement in special prisons
These privileges extended even to the scaffold: nobles could not be hanged but had the "privilege" of being decapitated. This pervasive mentality largely prevented the emergence of a robust bourgeoisie (merchants, manufacturers) with a business-oriented mindset that could foster economic development, unlike what was occurring in nations like England and Holland, except in a few commercial cities such as Cadiz and Barcelona.
Economic Stagnation and Decline
Individuals with economic means, rather than making productive investments in agriculture, trade, or crafts, often sought to ennoble themselves, buying land and living as nobles. This entire mentality was embedded in a broader context of pessimism and a growing awareness of the country's decline.
Cultural Flourishing
Despite the social and economic challenges, Spain experienced an unprecedented cultural boom during this period. The century began with the towering figure of Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) and his seminal work, "Don Quixote" (published in 1605 and 1614). Hispanic letters shone brightly with other literary giants such as Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, and Luis de Góngora.