Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Social sciences for Secondary education

The Second Spanish Republic

When Primo de Rivera resigned, the military governments appointed by the King failed to calm the economic situation or social unrest. In the elections held in April 1931, the joined anti-monarchy parties obtained a majority in all major cities and in areas previously dominated by local political bosses (caciques). This led to the abdication of King Alfonso XIII, and the public rejoiced at the advent of the Second Spanish Republic.

The new constitution, approved by Parliament, strengthened the democratic framework with:

• An extensive bill of rights and freedoms, including civil rights and education.
• Universal suffrage, granting the vote to both men and women.
• The establishment of a secular state, ensuring the separation

Modern Conflict Dynamics

Symmetrical Warfare

Traditional warfare, or symmetrical conflicts, involves two great armies of equal strength facing each other, resulting in major and decisive battles.

Asymmetrical Warfare

Asymmetrical wars are more frequent. They involve a great power or coalition facing smaller groups with high maneuverability. An example of this is the struggle being waged by democratic states against terrorist groups.

The United Nations (UN)

The UN is an organization formed by 192 member states. Its objective is to work together for world peace, promoting friendship among nations and supporting socio-economic progress.

Key UN Agencies

• UNHCR: UN High Commissioner for Refugees.
• UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Globalization and the Modern State

Globalization refers to the advances in communication technology that allow people to communicate with each other and gain an inside look at what is happening elsewhere in the world.

The Globalization Process

Globalization is considered a process because it has a specific beginning and a sequence of development.

Defining the State and Sovereignty

• State: Characterized by having a set of political institutions, governance, and administration through which it exercises its functions by enabling the development of society.
• Territory: A portion of the land surface over which a domain called real or effective sovereignty is exercised.
• Sovereignty: The real or effective control over a piece of land.
• Nation: A set of individuals

The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon

The Directory suppressed popular uprisings led by various sectors, but its greatest achievement was in foreign policy. France's borders were extended, and the bourgeoisie began to believe that the army was the only means of maintaining order. On 9 November 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup, seized power, and effectively ended the Revolution. He established the Consulate and declared himself First Consul.

The Consulate and Napoleonic Reforms

The Consulate drafted a new constitution that limited suffrage and established a Bill of Rights. Napoleon suppressed Jacobinism and democratic movements. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor and created new institutions, including:

• The Civil and Criminal Codes: Standardizing

The French Revolution: Causes and Initial Events (1789)

In 1789, France faced a severe social and economic crisis. Key factors included:

• Rising crop prices, which led to widespread hardship.
• The bourgeoisie (the wealthy middle class) was politically marginalized, as privileges were reserved only for the aristocracy.
• A profound financial crisis caused by excessive state spending and the costs of the royal court.

The proposed solution was a tax reform requiring the aristocracy to pay taxes. The French Revolution began when the aristocracy refused this measure and demanded the convening of the **Estates-General**.

The Estates-General and the National Assembly

The Estates-General opened in May 1789 to allow members to vote on reforms. The representatives...

History of Athenian Democracy

In 508 BC, a significant change in institutions occurred, integrating the people within new democratic structures. His reforms can be divided into two areas: one involved a reorganization of the civic body, and the other a new institutional sort. Regarding the new organization of power, a council of five hundred members (the Boule) was created, which exercised control over the judges and played an important judicial role. Around 440 BC, democratic institutions took their definitive form. Procedures were elaborated for meetings of the Boule and Ekklesia, and specialized magistrate bodies were organized. Its restoration in 280 BC, however, was but a pale reflection of its previous political life.

Political Institutions

Legal Standards

Regulating: the behaviors allowed, restricted or banned.

Enacted: the legislative body empowered to do so.

Must follow: members of the political community united by the social and political pact establishing the state.

First respondent: in the courts of justice.

Sanction: those determined by law.

Purpose: To achieve the common good.

Nationality

Ways of acquiring:

• Soil (jus soli)
• Blood (jus sanguinis)
• Letter of naturalization
• By grace

Ways to lose: choice: become citizen of another country; serving the enemy in wartime; cancellation of the letter of naturalization; by law to revoke the naturalization.

Ways to get it by grace: by law.

Citizenship

Ways of acquiring: by nationality; at 18 years of age without conviction or penal sentence.

Ways to

The Infamous Decade and the 1930 Coup

1930 Coup: Overthrown: Irigoyen. Led by: Uriburu. Duration: 13 years. This event established the precedent for military intervention in Argentina.

• Establishment of a police division for the systematic use of torture against political opponents.
• Creation of the National Grain Board, National Meat Board, and the Central Bank of Argentina.
• The Infamous Decade: Characterized by electoral fraud under Presidents Justo, Ortiz, and Castillo.

The 1943 Coup and the Rise of Peronism

1943 Coup: Overthrown: Ramón Castillo. Led by: Arturo Rawson and Pedro Ramírez. Duration: 3 years. Ended in 1946 with democratic elections, leading to the presidency of Juan Domingo Perón. Presidents: Arturo Rawson, Pedro Pablo Ramírez,...

Economic Reforms Under Manuel Rengifo (1830s)

During the government of President Prieto, Finance Minister Manuel Rengifo took major steps to revive the economy. His reforms included:

• Eliminating taxes on farming and manufacturing inputs.
• Reopening warehouses in Valparaíso to encourage foreign trade.
• Setting new tariffs for imports and exports.
• Liberalizing certain goods (exempting them from taxes), such as machinery.

This liberalization drove not only material development but also intellectual progress, as the availability of machinery allowed for the production and printing of books and newspapers.

Moreover, with the discovery of the Chañarcillo silver mine in 1832, the government could lighten the national debt and fund infrastructure projects,...

The French Revolution (1789-1799): A Historical Shift

The French Revolution (1789-1799) marked the demolition of the Old Regime, dominated by the aristocracy and absolute monarchy, and the establishment of liberalism led by the bourgeoisie. During these ten years, France experienced profound changes at all levels.

From a political standpoint, the absolute monarchy gave way to a constitutional monarchy and eventually a republic. Economically and socially, France began its path toward industrialization and a bourgeois society. The revolution unfolded in three distinct phases:

1. Demolition of the Old Regime (1789-1792)

Representatives of the Third Estate, joined by some members of the other two estates, formed the National Assembly. This body transformed...