Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Social sciences for Baccalaureate

TXT 5: Political and Economic Regeneration

• 1. Regenerating Political Life

  The manifesto clearly states the need to eradicate political corruption, which was evident in the economic and financial policies of moderate governments encouraged by Elizabeth II.

• 2. Promoting Progressive Proposals

  The entire text defends the ideology and demands of the progressive sector.

• 3. Respect for the Crown and National Sovereignty

  Its claims do not challenge the Crown or the monarchy itself, as would happen 14 years later. Nor do they undermine the liberal system.

TXT 6: Broadening Rights and Suffrage

• 1. Broad Declaration of Rights and Liberties

  This statement includes rights not covered in previous constitutions, such as freedom of residence, inviolability of mail,

Key Political Concepts

Before analyzing the historical context, it is essential to define the following terms:

• Absolute Monarchy: A political system characterized by the concentration of all power (executive, legislative, and judicial) in the hands of the monarch, often justified by the theory of the divine origin of power. Supervisory bodies, such as the Spanish Cortes, served only a consultative role. This system persisted in Spain until the death of Fernando VII.
• Constitution of Cadiz: The first constitution in contemporary Spanish history. It was liberal in character and drafted by the General and Extraordinary Cortes, which convened in 1810.
• Cortes: Historically, these were traditional representative bodies from the late Middle Ages composed

Linguistic Diversity in the World

Between four and seven thousand languages are spoken globally, yet fewer than two hundred states exist. This leads to the claim that most states are multilingual. Language barriers do not always correspond with political or administrative boundaries. The highest density of languages is found in Papua New Guinea, with seven hundred languages. To a lesser extent, the Iberian Peninsula features languages of international communication, such as French and English, which are considered the languages par excellence internationally.

As a consequence of choosing a particular language for international use, several attempts were made to create artificial languages, like Esperanto. The emergence of pidgins is due to the...

Cooperation and Aggression in Human Nature

Aggression and Violence: Elements inherent to human nature? Thomas Hobbes believed that man is essentially selfish, seeking only his own benefit. According to Hobbes, competition and rivalry are natural among men, while cooperation and solidarity arise later.

Sociological Darwinism

This theory posits that just as individuals and species evolve, so do societies. One of the various mechanisms that promote this progress is the struggle for survival. Thus, conflict is seen as an essential mechanism for human progress.

External Factors Influencing Behavior

This perspective suggests that violence and conflict in social life are not inherent in human nature. Humans are not inherently aggressive and competitive,...

Understanding Socialization and Social Norms

Instincts are biologically determined patterns of behavior, many of which are shared with other animals. However, human behavior is profoundly shaped by the process of socialization, which involves acquiring knowledge, forming bonds, and integrating into society. This process helps individuals internalize social norms and values. The absence of such a regulatory model can lead to a state of anomie, or normlessness. In contrast, when there is harmony in a society, its inhabitants are more likely to promote the social good, a goal often aligned with humanistic principles that seek collective and individual well-being.

Primary Socialization

Stage

This occurs during the first years of a child's life.

Features

• Acquisition

Shifting the World's Image: Geocentric to Heliocentric

The geocentric model (Earth at the center of the universe) was finally replaced by the heliocentric model (Sun at the center of the universe). This fundamental shift underpins modern science, introducing a new, unitary conception of the universe.

Unlike the Aristotelian interpretation, which posited distinct supralunar and sublunary worlds—the latter allowing for decomposition and imperfections—the Scientific Revolution established a universe without privileged regions. Consequently, the universe is now understood as homogeneous in its material and phenomena, with the same laws governing movements on Earth and throughout the cosmos.

Modern science would not have been possible without significant...

The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)

Queen Isabella II calls Espartero to restore the Constitution of 1837. She announces cuts and postpones general workers' demands for freedom of association. Espartero conducts the dissolution of boards. His resignation signifies a revolutionary break with the Democrats. The regime established during the biennium seeks constitutional change, remaining a project whose fundamental characteristics are progressive.

The Work of the Biennium

Bases for the constitution were created. The Constitution of 1856 featured national sovereignty, an elected senate with the same privileges as Congress, and a permanent deputation of the courts. It included broad rights, such as religious freedom, which caused a new Carlist uprising....

The Constitution of 1845

After the triumph of the moderates in Torrejón de Ardoz, the Narváez government carried out a reform of the Constitution of 1837 through ordinary, rather than constituent, Cortes. The Constitution of 1845 serves as the institutional embodiment of moderate ideology, as evidenced by the following aspects:

• Rejection of national sovereignty: It denies the constituent power of the people.
• Historical constitution: It asserts a framework based on two institutions—the King and the Cortes—which regulate relations and articulate the written constitution.

Political Context and Party Constitutions

If the Constitution of 1837 represented the Progressive Party, the 1845 document represents the Moderate Party. This initiated a practice...

Legislative Elections of February 1936

This document, extracted from a history book, reflects the results of the legislative elections held on February 16, 1936. It details the outcomes in the four Catalan provinces and Barcelona city. The two main contesting forces were the Left Front and the Catalan Front (Dorda).

The elections of February 16, 1936, were the last legislative elections to occur during the Spanish Second Republic before the outbreak of the Civil War. The political scene was sharply divided into two major, strongly opposed groups. These elections were highly significant as they followed the events of October 1934. Victory was proclaimed by the Popular Front, an alliance formed by all left-wing parties.

In these elections, the Popular...

The Constitution of 1845

This legal text contains selected articles concerning the Constitution of 1845, enacted during the reign of Isabella II, who ascended to the throne at age 13. Following the departure of González Bravo, Narváez assumed control of the government and held elections for the Cortes in 1844, resulting in a moderate victory with the objective of reforming the 1837 Constitution.

Isabella II sanctioned the new constitution to surpass the 1837 version. This moderate document established a centralized and uniform model of conservative liberalism, characterized by:

• Shared Sovereignty: Power divided between the King and the Cortes (legislature).
• Executive Authority: The King held the power to appoint and dismiss administration members.