Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Social sciences for Baccalaureate

The Standard Language Variety

Language varieties have been created throughout history. A common variety, called a standard language, is one where dialect differences are poorly marked. Historically, this variety has been more associated with written communication than oral; however, it currently serves as a model for written language, oral communication, and mass media.

The standard variety is characterized by:

• Having a norm (or 'law') which serves as a reference model for speakers.
• Adapting to the changes that users can introduce.
• Presenting different rules or sub-norms based on the speech of educated speakers from various dialects.
• Being disseminated through institutions such as the Royal Spanish Academy, education, and communication media.

It is...

Spanish Enlightenment: Context and Characteristics

The spread of Enlightenment ideas in Spain was relatively slow and late, although it presented essentially the same features as elsewhere in Europe. Enlightened thinkers (ilustrados) were always a small minority among the Spanish population, and their actions were often more theoretical than practical. Despite this, they drew attention to significant problems. They cannot be blamed for the absence of a powerful bourgeoisie capable of adopting their ideas.

Characteristic Features of Spanish Enlightenment

The characteristic features of this ideology include:

• Employment of reason and criticism as a method for analyzing and improving social reality.
• Promotion of the national economy, seen as necessary

The Radical-CEDA Biennium (1933–1936)

The period between November 1933 and February 1936, known as the Radical-CEDA Biennium or the Rectifier, marked a significant shift in the Second Spanish Republic. This era was defined by intense political instability and the systematic reversal of previous reformist policies.

Political Instability and Cabinet Turnover

A defining feature of this stage was the difficulty in forming stable governments, evidenced by the appointment of 10 cabinet ministers in just over two years. The ambiguity surrounding the Republic's future complicated the formation of a cohesive system. By October 1934, the government was dominated by the Radical Party, typically chaired by Alejandro Lerroux, though it relied on the support...

The Rise of Regional Nationalisms in Spain

Catalan Political Nationalism

Catalan political nationalism emerged during a six-year period, advocating for democratic federalism and an integrated Catalonia within a Spanish federal state. The Catalan union sought to unify various trends around the nationalist bourgeoisie. This movement was notably illustrated and promoted by the conservative Manresa Bases of 1892, a foundational document that outlined the first program explicitly including a conservative Catalan statute. However, it wasn't until 1901 that Catalonia's first political party, the Regionalist League, was formed.

Basque Political Nationalism

Basque political nationalism defended lost historical rights and vehemently rejected the industrialization...

Definition of the State Budget

The State Budget is the quantified, complete, and systematic expression of the obligations (expenses) that can be recognized, and the duties (income) that are projected for settlement during the relevant period (fiscal year).

Preparation and Approval Process

The budgets are prepared annually by the Ministry of Economy and Finance (specifically, the General Secretariat of Budgets and Expenditures, operating through three directorates):

• Directorate General of Budget
• Directorate General for Personnel Costs and Public Pensions
• General Directorate of Community Funds

The draft budget is approved by the Council of Ministers before being submitted to the legislative branch. The approval process involves several stages:

1. The Government

Science and Technology

Science: This type of knowledge is the most important that human beings produce, if one takes into account the enormous influence it has on all areas of knowledge and on many fields of life.

Technology: This is a vast field of research, design, and creation that uses scientific knowledge in order to control things or natural processes.

Empiricism

It emerged in the eighteenth century in England and was represented by its maximum exponent, D. Hume.

Empiricism is a theory of knowledge which believes that we can only understand reality through the physical senses or perception of things. We could even say that it is a theory contrary to rationalism.

There are two types of knowledge:

• Simple
• Compound

Impressions: Vivid perceptions of...

The Legacy of the French Revolution

The concept of the nation as a political community with the right to create an organized state is one of the most important ideological legacies of the French Revolution. The old personal loyalty of subjects to the feudal lord and the absolute monarch made way for a new legal loyalty of citizens to a constitution or national law.

Citizenship and Cultural Identity

In this new context, individuals had to belong to a community and share a culture, language, and customs with others to exercise their political rights as citizens. For a truly representative government to exist, it was imperative that there be a coherent national community. Consequently, nineteenth-century liberals were often nationalists and sought...

Political Anarchism in Spain

In 1881, the Spanish section of the International changed its name to the Federation of the Spanish Region, creating an association of a vindictive character. Disagreements within the organization and the continued repression of the workers' and peasants' movements favored a faction of anarchism that opted for direct action and self-organized revolutionary groups.

The period between 1893 and 1897 saw the most significant acts of social violence. Anarchism was accused of being behind the Black Hand. These attacks and riots were followed by severe repression, leading to a spiral of violence. The turning point of this cycle was the Montjuïc trials, in which five anarchists were convicted and executed.

The proliferation...

Spanish Language Around the World

Spanish as an Official Language

Spanish is spoken on four continents:

• Europe: Spain
• Asia: Philippines and Israel
• Africa: Equatorial Guinea
• America: Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba, Ecuador, Chile, etc.

Varieties of Spanish

Along with the most common variety (American Spanish), there are other notable varieties:

• The Sephardic or Ladino, which is an archaic form spoken by a decreasing number of people in areas like Israel, Greece, Bulgaria, etc.
• The Spanish of the Philippines is the language of an educated minority, and the dialect used in the area is Chabacano.
• The Spanish of Puerto Rico, which coexists with English.
• The Spanish of Paraguay, which coexists with the dominant Guaraní.

In addition, peculiar situations are occurring...

The Crisis of Reading Habits in Higher Education

Currently, university professors share the opinion that students do not read. They lack the habit and fail to see the necessity of reading, nor do they actively seek solutions to this significant problem. Some universities have launched introductory courses because they argue that students arrive at the faculty poorly prepared.

Literacy and the Digital Shift

Handwriting has historically been key to the development of civilization, making possible discoveries like new drugs or understanding our historical past.

New technologies, namely the Internet, have changed how we consume information. Nowadays, young people read and seek information digitally. Reading helps develop various skills, such as:

• Interpreting