Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Social sciences for Baccalaureate

José Ortega y Gasset: A Biographical Sketch

José Ortega y Gasset was born in Madrid in 1883, into a liberal and enlightened bourgeois family. His mother owned the newspaper El Imparcial, where his father served as director. Ortega alternated his dedication between philosophy and journalism, acting as a prominent political theorist of his time. He staunchly defended Republican ideology.

After his exile, he returned to Spain in 1945 and passed away ten years later. Ortega's intellectual trajectory is typically divided into three periods: objectivist, ratiovitalist, and perspectivist.

Historical and Cultural Context of Ortega's Era

This period holds significant importance in the recent history of Spain and the world. In Spain, the Bourbon Restoration...

Historical materialism is the philosophy of society and history in Marxism. Marx assumed that the knowledge of man, society, and history requires a science whose subject matter, epistemological foundation, and method are radically different from those of the natural sciences. Historical materialism, Marx thought, is the true science of human phenomena (social and historical) and is presented as a scientific theory of the economic or material conditions of society and history.

The main idea of historical materialism is that history is not an accidental sequence of events resulting from the individual action of some influential characters and decisive action or imaginary subjects, like providence, fate, or the spirit of the people (Volkgeist),...

Production Relations

Production relations do not work in isolation. The relations of production depend on the agents of production, all individuals involved in a production process, and the means of production. There are two types of production relations: technical, which occur between the agent and the environment, and social, which exist between the agents. Technical relations refer to the control of the production agents over ways to work. There are three types of control:

• Individual production process: The agent controls the media and the process of work (e.g., craftsmanship).
• Simple cooperative production process: Agents perform the same task, individually control the media, and collectively control the labor process (e.g., original game)

Social Classes in the 19th Century

Aristocracy and Wealthy Elites

Circles were common in private clubs and casinos frequented by the richest. Aristocratic salons and balls were prevalent. Clothing was ostentatious, and abundant appearance was cared for to enhance social standing.

Farmworkers: The Peasants

Despite the changes, peasants remained the largest population group in the early 20th century. Their lifestyle was traditional, and their views were conservative. Peasants were hostile to liberalism and socialism initially and did not support the notional cause. In contrast, they demonstrated support for conservatives, order, and religion.

Groups:

• The Wealthy: Liberal measures benefited them, and they became landowners.
• The Landless Laborers: They

Key Linguistic Concepts

• Bilingualism: The routine use of two languages in the same region or by the same person.
• Semantic Field: A set of words related by meaning.
• Connotation: The set of values associated with a term.
• Denotation: The basic semantic features of a word, its core meaning.
• Diglossia: A type of bilingualism where languages have unequal social prestige.
• Statements: The minimum unit of communication, which can be a sentence or a phrase.
• Phonemes: Minimal linguistic units of meaning, representing mental images and sounds.
• Phonetics: The study of the physiological and acoustic aspects of speech sounds.
• Phonology: The study of how phonemes function to distinguish meanings, including intonation.
• Lexical Family: A set of words linked by a shared

The Second German Reich: Unification and Imperial Power (1871–1914)

In 1871, the Second German Reich was created. German unification centered around Prussia and the Prussian victory over France, leading to the proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor. The foundation of the Second Reich marked the emergence of a major power in Europe.

Economic Expansion and Political Structure

The Customs Union of 1834 and rapid industrial development contributed significantly to Germany's political unification and formed the basis of the country's economic strength. Monetary unification occurred, establishing the framework and the Imperial Bank. Railway policy was fundamental. The growing economy facilitated the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and accelerated...

The concept of globalization emerged in the twentieth century, following the crisis of the socialist bloc. However, throughout history, there have been various waves of globalization and internationalization of human relations.

Globalization has achieved much in the economic sphere. There is an unfettered freedom of capital movements, and some barriers to trade in goods and services have been removed. However, the movement of people, particularly migration, remains limited. The globalization of justice, human rights, ecology, and political decisions has been largely shelved.

The balance of the last 30 years concludes that globalization has not reached all countries. It has primarily benefited the most skilled sectors of the population in richer...

Pere Quart's Plagiarism Trial: A Parody

Comparing Quart and Espriu

Pere Quart's Plagiarism Trial at the Tavern is a parody of Salvador Espriu's Song in the Temple Essay, a work reflecting the cultural and spiritual climate during the Franco regime. Both poems share a three-part structure:

1. Part 1 (v. 1-7): The author's situation is explained.
2. Part 2 (v. 8-13): The situation is presented to others.
3. Part 3 (v. 14-20): A conclusion is presented, along with the decision and reasoning.

The key difference lies in tone. Espriu uses a solemn tone, while Quart employs irony and sarcasm. However, both remain faithful to their pàtria. A comparison reveals an opposition in the adjectives used; Espriu's and Quart's choices establish antonymous relationships...

The Global Presence of the Spanish Language

Approximately 340,000,000 people worldwide speak Spanish as their first language. It is the fourth language in terms of geographic extension and the third most spoken language globally, following English and Chinese.

The Cervantes Institute is responsible for the conservation and diffusion of the language both within and outside of Spanish-speaking territories, maintaining a presence in about 45 countries.

Language academies, such as the RAE (Royal Spanish Academy), establish the proper use of the language within the territory of Castilian Spanish. Founded in the 18th century, the RAE lays down the rules and laws governing the language and incorporates new words into the official lexicon. The RAE works...

Catalonia's Modernization: The Mancomunitat Era

The Mancomunitat de Catalunya carried out important work coordinating external services and creating networks of intellectuals and professionals. It undertook significant activities aimed at modernizing the country and improving public services.

Key Achievements of the Mancomunitat

• Creation of normal schools for teacher training and popular libraries.
• Establishment of a vocational school and an Industrial Labor University.
• Unification of spelling, initiated by Pompeu Fabra.
• Creation of Pompeu Fabra's scientific laboratory and provincial health laboratories for hygiene.
• Promotion of agriculture and livestock through experimental crop fields, model farms, technical assistance, and agricultural technical