Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Psychology and sociology for Secondary education

Memory Disorders

Amnesia

Amnesia is the inability to retain or retrieve information, a significant memory disorder. It can stem from organic or emotional causes and may be caused by a shock to the brain.

Chronological Classification of Memory

Anterograde Amnesia

Also called amnesia of fixation, this refers to the inability to learn new information after the onset of a disorder (usually organic) causing amnesia. The patient forgets at the same pace as events unfold. By definition, it concerns recent memory. It is usually reversible, except in some post-traumatic amnesia, Korsakoff syndrome, and irreversible cases of advanced dementia.

Retrograde Amnesia

This is the inability to recall previously learned information after the onset of a disorder (usually...

McClelland's Needs Theory of Motivation

David McClelland, a prominent psychologist, argued that all individuals possess three fundamental needs that drive their behavior and motivation. These needs are not inherent but are learned and developed over time through culture and life experiences. The intensity of these needs varies from person to person.

The Three Core Needs

• Need for Achievement (nAch): This refers to an individual's desire to excel, achieve in relation to a set of standards, and strive for success. It's the drive to accomplish challenging tasks and attain a high level of performance.
• Need for Power (nPow): This refers to the need to make others behave in a way they would not otherwise. It concerns the desire to have impact, influence,

Emotional Responses in Infants: 6 to 9 Months

Two emotional responses that are typical of this period are related to emerging fears. On one hand is the fear of strangers, which appears at about six months but is not readily apparent until ten to fourteen months. A good deal of children, but not all, feel fear when approaching a stranger.

Each child has its own way of expressing this fear, which depends on a number of factors, including:

• The temperament of the baby.
• The characteristics of the stranger.
• The specific situation in which the stranger is encountered.

Especially important is whether the mother is present or not; the child reacts with much more fear when she is absent.

Separation Anxiety

The other emotional response very typical of this time...

Theory of Differential Association and White-Collar Crime

According to Edwin Sutherland, criminal behavior is learned rather than inherited or born from spontaneous generation, rejecting purely positivist views. He also posits that low IQ does not inherently imply criminal behavior. Learning occurs through differential association—the groups and social circles to which an individual is linked. If these groups predominantly support criminal ideas, the individual learns criminal behavior; conversely, if the group adheres to law and order, the individual adopts those behaviors. Differential association acts as both a source and a consequence of learning, applicable to both antisocial and prosocial conduct.

The Nine Propositions of Differential

Ethical Principles in Research

The Belmont Report

The Belmont Report summarizes ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human subjects. Three core principles are identified: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Three primary areas of application are also stated: informed consent, assessment of risks and benefits, and selection of subjects.

Animal Welfare Act

The Animal Welfare Act requires that minimum standards of care and treatment be provided for certain animals bred for commercial sale, used in research, transported commercially, or exhibited to the public.

Respect for Persons

Respect for persons involves protecting the autonomy of all people, treating them with courtesy and respect, and allowing for informed consent....

Themes of Constraint and Power in Adichie's Work

Suppression of Voice and Personal Autonomy

“Wait—” I said, so that I could take the nightdress off, so it would not seem so hasty. But he had crushed his mouth down on mine.” (Adichie 120)

• Husband's Dominance and Gender Roles

  This quote indicates the limitations and lack of freedom in a basic right: speech. The husband's position, both figuratively and physically above her, further highlights the dominance and abuse present due to prevailing gender roles.

• Chinaza's Lack of Refusal and Control

  It is also important to note that Chinaza does not refuse sex from him despite hating it. This exemplifies the control that men have over women and the inability to possess personal freedom for women in

Chapter 6: Consciousness

Consciousness: a person's awareness of him/herself and his/her environment.

Planning Function

Helps you to inhibit urges we have that are not moral, ethical, or practical. Evaluates our thoughts before we act.

Levels of Consciousness

• Altered State of Consciousness: Bizarre, disorganized, or dream-like patterns.
• Minimal Consciousness: Fragmented connection between self; we might respond without being aware of it at a more thoughtful level.
• Full Consciousness: The awareness of the environment and awareness of mental state, giving information.
• Self-Consciousness: Focus on us.

Sleep Stages

1. Doesn't last very long (10 min).
2. Lasts a bit longer (20 min).
3. The most vivid dreams.
4. One of the most important (walking, seems real...).
5. Almost waking

Sexual Functioning and Dysfunction

Sexual functioning is a complex process involving biological, psychological, emotional, and social factors. Sexual dysfunction is characterized by a disturbance in the sexual response cycle desire, arousal, excitement, orgasm, and resolution or by pain with sexual intercourse. It is commonly associated with many diseases, such as diabetes and high blood pressure, and drugs, particularly blood pressure medications, anti-ulcer drugs, alcohol, sedative/hypnotics, mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and antidepressants. Depression itself can cause decreased libido, diminished erectile function, and decreased sexual activity. All antidepressants can have sexual side effects.

Antidepressant-Induced Sexual Dysfunction

Reports...

Advantages of Focus Groups

• Synergism: When a group of people with similar interests discuss an issue together, they are likely to produce richer insights, a wider range of information, and innovative ideas than individual responses obtained privately.
• Snowballing: In a group discussion, one person's comment often triggers a chain reaction from the other participants and generates more views.
• Stimulation: Once the focus group discussion is underway, the general level of excitement over the topic increases, and a large number of respondents want to express their ideas and expose their feelings.
• Security: Because of the homogeneity of composition, focus group participants often share similar feelings. This enables them to feel comfortable and uninhibited

Social Collectives Shaping Our Actions

Four kinds of social collectives shape our actions:

1. Social Groups
2. Networks
3. Formal Organizations
4. Whole Societies

Social Groups

Primary & Secondary Groups. Group Leadership. Group Conformity. Reference Groups. In & Out Groups. Group Size

Primary Groups

Shapes attitudes, behavior, social identity. “A small social group whose members share personal & lasting relationships” (Cooley)

Conformity is an integral part that ensures group cohesion. Primary groups exert more pressure to conform than secondary groups. Emotional intimacy ensures similar beliefs.

Secondary Groups

Large & impersonal groups whose members pursue a specific goal/activity. Weak emotional ties, typically impersonal (co-workers). Many...