Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Psychology and sociology for Baccalaureate

Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour

Info:

Cultural Dimensions: are traits that are characteristic to certain cultures. The theorist of the Cultural Dimensions theory, Geert Hofstede, conducted a massive study across 50 countries over 10 years to test his theory. At the conclusion of his study, Hofstede observed four dimensions.

• Individualism-Collectivism - where the individual self is more important than societal connections
• Masculinity-Femininity - “masculinity focuses on achievement, heroism, assertiveness, material rewards for success; femininity focuses on cooperation, modesty, caring for the weaker and for a good quality of life”
• Power Distance - “the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and

The Superego: The Moral Compass of Personality

The superego represents the judicial branch or moral component of personality. It embodies societal standards and cultural values that individuals internalize. Internalization means integrating external values into one's own personality. The superego comprises two subsystems: the ego ideal and conscience.

Ego Ideal and Conscience

The ego ideal encompasses goals, objectives, and all positively valued behaviors deemed morally acceptable. Conscience, conversely, refers to everything negatively evaluated or rejected.

The superego operates both unconsciously and consciously, potentially causing anxiety and guilt.

The superego dictates what *not* to do, often without providing explanations. This is similar...

Individual and Society: Tensions and Harmony

Tensions in the Individual-Society Relationship

Rejection

When the majority social group does not accept or recognize certain individuals as full members, it often leads to actions considered deviant from societal norms. Factors motivating social rejection include religious, cultural, and racial differences.

Self-Exclusion

The opposite of social rejection is self-exclusion. This tension arises when an individual does not identify with the community's parameters, feels dissatisfied with their surroundings, and ignores cultural norms. This can stem from incomplete family socialization, severe childhood trauma, or an abrupt societal change.

Marginalization

Resulting from social rejection and self-exclusion,...

Structuralism: The First School of Psychology

Structuralism was the first systematic school of psychology. It was founded by Wilhelm Wundt and further developed by Edward B. Titchener.

• Focus: The structure of consciousness.
• Method: Introspection.
• Goal: To identify basic elements such as sensations, feelings, and images.

Structuralism treated the mind like a chemical compound. Its primary contribution was making psychology a separate scientific discipline. However, it faced criticism because introspection is subjective, it ignored the function of the mind, and it was not applicable to children or animals. Today, it remains the foundation of experimental psychology.

Functionalism and Mental Processes

Functionalism emerged as a reaction against structuralism....

Soft Skills: Essential Attributes for Success

Soft skills are a set of interpersonal and personal attributes that are not necessarily quantifiable or measurable, but significantly determine work performance and career success. They encompass how you interact with others and manage yourself.

Key Soft Skills Categories

• Self-Management Skills:
  • Self-awareness
  • Emotional management
  • Self-confidence
  • Patience
  • Stress management
  • Resilience
  • Critical thinking and problem-solving
  • Persistence and perseverance
• People Skills:
  • Communication skills
  • Presentation skills
  • Facilitating skills
  • Interviewing skills
  • Selling skills
  • Ability to think/work under pressure
  • Influence (unintentional) / Persuasion skills (intentional)
  • Teamwork skills
  • Leadership
  • Interpersonal relationship skills
  • Negotiation

Personality: A Person's Pattern of Thinking, Feeling, and Acting

Type A and Type B Personalities

• Type A: Feel time pressure, easily angered, competitive and ambitious, work hard, more prone to heart disease.
• Type B: Relaxed and easygoing, work steadily, disregard physical or mental stress when they do not achieve.

Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory

Freud believed that libido (psychosexual energy) moves to different parts of the body during different stages of development:

• Oral Stage (0-2 years): Sucking, mouth (drinking, eating, dependence, independence)
• Anal Stage (2 years): Bowel movements (orderly, stubborn/messy, wasteful)
• Phallic Stage (3-5 years): Play with genitals, feel attracted to the opposite parent
• Latent Stage (5 years to adolescence): Suppress

Understanding Stress

Nature of Stress

1. Stress is a reaction to change.
2. It can be positive (eustress) or negative (distress).
3. Generally, stress stimulates the release of hormones like adrenaline, leading to:

• Quickening of heart rate
• Accelerating metabolism
• Preparing the body for emergency action (fight or flight response)

Therefore, recognizing the sources and effects of stress as early as possible is necessary for effective coping mechanisms.

Stress Analogy

• Stress is like salt and pepper in food. In moderation, it can be beneficial.
• However, if the quantity increases, it can make food taste bad and lead to health problems.

Impact of Stress Levels

• Excessive stress can create numerous health problems, both physically and psychologically.
• Conversely, if stress

Introduction to OB

Organisational behaviour is more about individual and team

Human are easy to deceive

Intuition can be wrong

Organisational culture

Definition: It is the shared set of beliefs, expectations, values, norms, and work routines that influence how members of an organization relate to one another and work together to achieve organizational goals.

7 dimension of organizational culture

Innovation/Stability/Respect for people/Outcome orientation/Attention to detail/Team orientation/Aggressiveness

Variability in culture is low than the relationship between outcome and culture is clear

Importance of a strong organisational culture

Organisational identity (like sense of belonging)/Sense-making device/Collective commitment/Social system stability...

Definition of Gender Roles and Gender Relations

Gender roles are the social definitions of women and men. They vary among different societies, cultures, classes, ages, and historical periods.

Gender relations are the ways in which a culture or society defines the rights, responsibilities, and identities of men and women in relation to one another.

Key Aspects of Gender

• Traits of being male/female are biological.
• Gender is learned and cultural.
• Gender guides a child's socialization according to societal expectations.
• Many differences between men and women are socially constructed.

What Does Gender Mean?

Gender shapes societies and cultures. Most societies are hierarchical, with one or more dominant groups and other subordinate groups. The dominant group...