Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Psychology and sociology for Baccalaureate

Associative Learning

According to psychologists Hilgard and Marquis, learning reflects a stable behavioral change that allows living organisms to adapt to their environment. This means changing or acquiring a new, stable behavior that aids in environmental adaptation. The initial explanations of how we learn come from:

Reflexology or Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov, a key figure in this field, conducted the famous "Pavlov's Dog" experiment. He aimed to demonstrate how humans and animals learn. He placed a capsule in the dog's mouth to collect saliva. When presented with food (an unconditioned stimulus), the dog's unconditioned response was to salivate. Pavlov then paired the food with a sound (a bell). After several repetitions, the dog...

The Human Mind and Affective Expressions

The human being possesses intelligence. However, we think not only of intelligence but also of knowing feelings. Human beings have two minds: one that thinks and one that feels, and both interact with our emotional life. Affective expressions are distinguished as:

• Emotions
• Feelings
• Passions
• Motivations

Understanding Emotions

An emotion is a brief, sudden appearance, accompanied by physiological reactions and altered behavior. A common example is infatuation.

An emotion can trigger an unhealthy situation, such as distress. Anxiety is a fear where there are no real threats present.

The Nature of Feelings

The feeling is a more important affective expression. Its origin is often unclear and may have various reasons....

A Composite Map of Social Class in the U.S.

The upper class
Wealthiest Americans earning more than $180,800 a year, owning large suburban homes, driving new luxury cars. Wealth comes from investment income (usually). About 5% of all American households.
The upper middle class
Well-off professionals, such as doctors, lawyers, professors, with incomes ranging from about $100,000 to about $180,000 or so. About 15% of all American households.
Lower Middle Class
Skilled services, office workers, skilled craftsmen, with household incomes from about $38,000 to about $100,000. About 40% of American households.
Working Class
Factory workers, mechanics, office workers, etc. About 20% of American households. Income from about $20,000 to $38,000.
The lower class
People...

Understanding Emotions

Anger

Anger arises when we face frustration or aversion. It energizes us to take action, providing renewed vigor after a frustrating experience, enabling defense or achievement of goals.

Hostility

Hostility is a complex emotion blending anger, disgust, indignation, contempt, and resentment. It lacks a specific facial expression, but can lead to anger and violence.

Humor

Humor emerges after a non-serious error, producing laughter and positive feelings. A smile and laughter are its expressions. It relaxes us, mitigates negativity, and benefits mental and physical health.

Happiness

Happiness fosters positive reception and interpretation of environmental stimuli. More durable than fleeting pleasure, it seeks emotional stability....

Understanding Affectivity

Affectivity is a set of emotions, feelings, and passions that individuals experience internally in response to thoughts, events, or during their lifetime.

Characteristics of Affectivity

• They are natural, subjective, and often difficult to communicate fully. All individuals experience affectivity, which is expressed verbally and through gestures.
• Affectivity oscillates between opposing poles, such as joy and sorrow, attraction and rejection, pleasure and displeasure.

Its external manifestations are evident in an individual's demeanor. For example, if love is the dominant affect in a subject's life at a specific moment, it reflects joy, optimism, and enthusiasm for change. If that love is unrequited, it shows decline, pessimism,...

Innermost Regions of the Brain

Innermost regions of the brain are responsible for the basic involuntary functions, while outer regions of the brain are conscious and high-order thinking. The outer layer responsible for these higher functions is called the cortex.

Brain Stem

Base of the brain, it is attached to the spinal cord. The brain stem controls our heartbeat.

Thalamus

Above the brain stem. It receives all the sensory information from our senses (except smell) and sends it to other parts of the brain to process the data.

Cerebellum

Behind the brain stem. It coordinates movement like walking and plays a role in non-verbal learning and memory.

Visual Cortex

Located in the back of the brain. It receives and processes visual information.

Frontal Lobe

General...

Proposition:

Minimal unit of cognitive semantics; it is the equivalent of a statement, a statement being a sentence either affirmative or negative.

Utterance:

Is more a pragmatic form. It is an item of language produced by a real speaker in a real situation. Sometimes proposition and non-propositions are utterance.

Lexical meaning:

The meaning assigned to every word of the sentence.

Natural language:

A language that has developed naturally in use (as contrasted with an artificial language or computer code). The language of every human society.

Conceptualization:

Cognitive process automatically performed to make sense of the world/outer reality.

Categorization:

Basic cognitive function. Performed automatically and unconsciously as we interact with reality/...

Understanding Attribution Errors

Attribution is defined by Correspondence Inference Theory as the tendency to interpret someone’s immediate behavior as a general statement about their personality, often mistaking situational factors for a person's disposition.

Common Attribution Errors

• Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): The tendency to overestimate internal, dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining behavior.
• Self-Serving Bias: Attributing personal successes to internal, dispositional factors while blaming external, situational factors for failures.
• Defensive Attribution: The tendency to blame victims for their own misfortunes.

Ross et al. and the Fundamental Attribution Error

Aim: To determine if participants...