Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for University

Fundamentals of Inductive Reasoning

• To establish matters of fact, one must rely on reasoning that is inductive.
• Inductive reasoning provides the starting points for reasoning.
• In inductive reasoning, the relationship between premises and conclusion is not one of logical necessity.
• The claim of certainty is not made.
• The terms "valid" and "invalid" do not apply to these arguments.
• It is a truth that is established as a consequence of the relations of the concepts involved.
• One must rely on arguments that support their conclusions only as probable or probably true.

Analogy and Analogical Arguments

• The most common type of inductive argument relies on analogy.
• Their conclusions are not claimed to follow from their premises with logical necessity.
• It is possible

1. Defining Competencies

Competencies are a set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for the development of a task or personal potential. They allow individuals to establish and maintain social relationships and face various life problems. The ability to mobilize these resources in a given environment defines their content.

2. Graduate Profile

The graduate profile represents the set of skills, knowledge, and attitudes acquired by an individual at the end of an educational stage.

3. Specific Religious Competencies

• Competencies on religious beliefs.
• Competencies on the sources of the Christian faith.
• Prayer and liturgy.
• The moral and ethical code of religion.
• Artistic expressions of religion.
• Cultural manifestations of origin.
• Media relating to

Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Two Worlds

Plato's metaphysics presents a dualistic conception of reality. He proposes the existence of two distinct worlds:

• The sensible world (physical): This is the world we perceive through our senses. It is a world of constant change and imperfection.
• The metaphysical world (World of Ideas or Forms): This world is composed of perfect, immaterial, immutable, and incorruptible entities called "Ideas" or "Forms." These Ideas are not merely concepts but have their own independent existence.

The World of Ideas is intelligible, meaning we can access it through pure reason, not through the senses. It contains:

• Mathematical concepts (numbers, etc.)
• General concepts relating to the physical world (animal, sun, clouds,

IGIC vs. ITPAJD: Taxing Capital Transfers

Acts subject to the onerous form of capital transfers are not taxed by the IGIC (Canary Islands General Indirect Tax) due to its commercial nature. Instead, transactions subject to or exempt from these acts are taxed by the ITPAJD (Transfer Tax and Stamp Duty). Furthermore, corporate transactions may be taxed by the ITPAJD and may also be subject to the IGIC when performing movements of business assets for the establishment of a company.

Subjective Elements of IGIC Taxation

The IGIC applies to the delivery of goods (including imports) and services supplied for consideration by employers and professionals on a regular basis. This applies to those developing their business or profession and importing property...

Quiz 2: Metaphysics and Theology

1. Which thinker argued that our decision to believe in God is a matter of rational wager? Blaise Pascal
2. Which theologian attempted to reconcile Realism and Nominalism through Conceptualism? Pierre Abelard
3. Which philosopher developed the allegory of the cave? Plato
4. Who developed the argument from degrees of qualities? St. Thomas Aquinas
5. The arguments for the existence of God belong to which part of philosophy? Metaphysics
6. The Cosmological Argument was inspired by which ancient Greek philosopher? Aristotle
7. Which argument relies on a priori reasoning? Ontological Argument
8. Which opposition affects the status of universal concepts? Realism vs. Nominalism
9. Who is the author of the Cosmological Argument? St. Thomas Aquinas
10. Who

Natural Law, Rights and Justice in Legal Theory

Key Concepts and Definitions

Natural right

A kind of action belonging to a broader moral order (natural law); it can be discovered in the nature of human realities. It is a whole bundle of institutions that allow basic justice in societies and among people.

Iusnaturalism

What is natural for humans is common to all (universal), and those elements that are not essential change according to the different conditions in which they develop (positive right).

Positive right

Law arranged by the human will.

Positivism

A philosophical current that denies the validity of speculative metaphysics. It precedes the juridical trend of legal positivism and exclusively admits as real what is empirical, countable, and

Constructivism in International Relations

One of the main assumptions of Western philosophy is the difference between nature and culture. The concept of nature is an important discovery of philosophy. Pre-philosophical societies did not make this distinction. Post-modernism doubts there is a radical distinction between nature and culture: they think this difference is not all that clear. International relations are accordingly not solely based on a natural reality (state of anarchy) but also on a social reality. Constructivism claims that tradition and culture result in the development of social phenomena. They believe international relations to be social and cultural. We do not obey any natural law but rather our own construction of ideas.

Main

The Historic Weighting of Legal Elements

The weighting of historical elements is essential in the expression of law:

• Legal historicism: A conception based on how the law has been interpreted and legitimized.
• Historical narrative: History serves to explain, interpret, and legitimize legal frameworks.

This approach analyzes the past through specific lenses:

Types of Historical Memory

• Intentionally disinterested: Memory of past events without a specific agenda.
• Intentionally interested (Reason): Providing a concrete and particular interpretation of past events.
• Intentionally interested (Rational and volitional): Searching the past to find justifications for current arguments. This includes the overestimation of historical phenomena and the use of history

Theme 06 — Existential Elements of the State

People and Population

PEOPLE: It is that part of the population that has political rights and may participate in the election of governors. In this way, all who constitute the people of a State are recognized as its citizens, and legislation often governs the procedures for the acquisition, loss, and eventual recovery of citizenship. As an element of the State, the basic component is the human and social substratum. The people have a legal relationship distinct from the population: the people are the repository of sovereignty.

Population

POPULATION: The set of persons located within a specific framework of the State, whether domestic or foreign, whether residents or transients. Population is defined...

1. The Concept of Law

• Concept of Law
• Characteristics of Law: Bilateral, generality, imperative, and coercivity.
• Classes of Law: Public and private.
• Sources of Law: Legislation, custom, and general principles of law.

2. Subjects of Legal Relationships

• Concept and Classes: Physical and legal persons.
• Capacity of Natural Persons: Legal capacity and capacity to act.
• The Natural Person: Birth, extinction, and proof of birth and death.
• Marital Status of Persons.
• Age and Legal Capacity: Concept, impact on capacity, age of majority, minors, and emancipation (via concession or marriage).
• Disability and Incapacitation: Natural disability (physical defects, mental disturbances), judicial disability, and institutionalization of minors.
• Family and Personal Status: