Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Secondary education

Common Logical Fallacies

Ad Hominem

Description: Attacking the person making the argument, rather than the argument itself. This fallacy occurs when the attack on the person is completely irrelevant to the argument they are making.

Logical Form:

• Person 1 is claiming Y.
• Person 1 is a moron.
• Therefore, Y is not true.

Ad Populum

Description: Claiming that most or many people accept a belief as true, and presenting this as evidence for the claim. Accepting this without demanding evidence as to why they accept the belief is lazy thinking and a dangerous way to accept information.

Logical Form:

• A lot of people believe X.
• Therefore, X must be true.

Argumentum ad Misericordiam

Description: An attempt to distract from the truth of the conclusion by the use of pity....

Essential Vocabulary List

• Sublime: Such excellence or beauty as to inspire great admiration.
• Potentate: A person who possesses great power as a ruler.
• Requisition: An authoritative or formal demand.
• Adjuration: An oath or promise.
• Cessation: A temporary or complete stopping.
• Supplicatory: Asking humbly and earnestly.
• Implacable: Relentless; unstoppable.
• Admonitory: Cautioning of something; warning.
• Obstinacy: Stubbornness.
• Aphorism: A pithy observation that contains a general truth.
• Cadence: A modulation or inflection in the voice.
• Compunction: A feeling of guilt or moral scruple that follows the doing of something bad.
• Abject: Extremely bad, unpleasant, or degrading.
• Dejected: To make sad or dispirited.
• Propitiate: To win or regain the favor of a god or

Understanding the Main Types of Texts

Texts serve various purposes, from informing and instructing to persuading and demonstrating. Understanding these classifications helps in both reading comprehension and effective writing.

Expository Texts

Expository texts aim to report on a topic of interest by presenting information clearly and objectively. They are generally divided into two categories:

1. Informative (Disclosing) Texts

These texts target a broad public sector and do not require extensive prior knowledge about the topic presented. They focus on disclosing facts and concepts.

Examples:

• Notes
• Textbooks
• Encyclopedias
• Reviews
• Lectures
• Collectibles

2. Specialized Expository Texts

These texts have a high degree of difficulty because they demand extensive

Chapter III: Sections 11 & 12

11. Fundamental Certainty: Individual Imperfection and Community Perfection

This concept typified medieval consciousness, stemming from profound anthropological convictions.

Three texts from different eras demonstrate this harmony: St. Augustine, bridging the ancient and early medieval periods; Hugo of St. Victor, the Parisian philosopher and theologian; and St. Thomas Aquinas, who systematized thought in the late 13th century.

Hugo of St. Victor's Hierarchia presents a universitas where plurality reduces to unity. Grace, while operating on individuals, finds its essential territory in the universitas. The individual is situated within the ordered unit, with responsibility as an exercise, not an entitlement.

Augustine'...

Core Values in Nursing Practice

Courage enables us to take risks, stemming from self-confidence, experience gained in practice, and the ability to believe in others. Hope involves believing strongly that people can improve; it means believing in people and their inherent tendency toward self-realization. Confidence is vital; if care is overprotective, mutual trust fails to develop, risking the dismissal of the patient's potential and life experience. Humility recognizes that care knowledge is shared between nurse and patient, among nursing teams, and across scientific disciplines.

Essential Attributes for Effective Care

• Be: Maintain a level of self-image and self-esteem that allows one to reach out to others.
• Independence: Maintain a level of independence

Comprehensive Glossary of Terms

A

• Archbishop: Metropolitan Bishop of the Church or one who has such honors.
• Autocratic: Relating to an autocracy or autocrat.
• Acclamation: Action and effect of cheering, giving voice to the crowd.
• Amnesty: Pardon of a certain group of political crimes, granted by law.
• Agree: To agree on terms or conditions for concluding a business deal.
• Adjudicate: To dismiss the action and effect.
• Adjacent: Adjoining, bordering, borderline. Describes the land which bounds a town with another land.
• Appellant: One who resorts. A person who has filed an appeal.

B

• Bind: To ensure adhesion in tissues.

C

• Contrast: To resist, cope. To show remarkable disagreement or opposition of one thing with another.
• Covet: To desire eagerly wealth and property.

Understanding Key Philosophical Concepts

Intuition: Intuition is direct and immediate knowledge, without reasoning, generally considered obvious.

Skepticism: Skepticism is questioning claims that are often taken for granted.

Phenomenology: Phenomenology studies events as they appear in consciousness, focusing on the relationship between facts.

Eidetic: Eidetic relates to essence and ideas, as opposed to factual or sensible matters.

Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics is the art of interpreting texts to determine the precise meaning of words and expressed thoughts.

Subjective: Subjectivity is based on the individual's viewpoint, influenced by interests and wishes, contrasting with objectivity.

Pantonomia: Also called universalism, pantonomia is the study of...

René Descartes: Early Life and Historical Context

Youth and Education

René Descartes (1596-1650) was born in La Haye, France. His family was affected by the death of his mother shortly after his birth and his father's occupation as a councilor of the Parliament of Brittany. He soon developed a great interest in study. Descartes graduated in Law from the University of Poitiers and Paris.

Historical Setting and Conflicts

The historical context of René Descartes' era saw a significant boom in France, Holland, and England, challenging the Spanish Empire. Consequently, absolute monarchies developed. This period of growth also led to numerous conflicts, including the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) between Catholics and Protestants.

Military Service

International Treaties and Domestic Law

Government's Role in Foreign Policy

It is a function of government to conduct foreign policy. The adoption of treaties manifests the government's consent, corresponding to the Head of State (the King). This consent may be countersigned by the President or the Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Categories of Treaties and Approval Processes

The Constitution (Article 93 et seq.) refers to several categories of treaties:

• Treaties Ceding Constitutional Powers: These include treaties that transfer constitutional powers to an international organization, such as the European Union accession treaty. Such treaties, due to their supranational character, require approval by an Organic Law.
• Treaties Requiring Parliamentary Approval:

Criteria of Truth

Evidence

Evidence refers to facts and propositions presented as obvious. Knowledge is considered evident when there is a certainty that prevents us from doubting its truth.

Failure of this criterion: The feeling of certainty and security that accompanies evidence is a mental state. Because this feeling is subjective, it is not a satisfactory criterion for truth.

Intersubjectivity

Intersubjectivity posits that for beliefs to be accepted as knowledge, they must be acceptable to any rational individual. Knowledge is objective and should be shareable by all, relying on collective recognition rather than individual perception.

Failure of this criterion: This is not a sufficient guarantee of truth. While true knowledge should be supported...