Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Latin for University

Romanticism in Spain: Key Characteristics and Literary Stages

Romanticism was a profound social and artistic movement spanning the first half of the 19th century. Its central purpose was asserting the right to liberty, understood both individually and collectively. In Europe, its development, particularly later in Spain during the reign of Ferdinand VII, allowed artists to express their ideology freely, disregarding classical rules.

Passion replaced reason, and artistic works became subjective. Romantic works are characterized by a mixture of genres, the combination of verse and prose, and the use of different metrical structures within a single poem.

Core Themes of Spanish Romanticism

• Feelings and Emotions: The primary theme is the intense expression

Vanguards: Early 20th Century Spanish Literature

Around 1910, avant-garde movements emerged in the European artistic and literary scene. These movements rejected traditional art forms and advocated for experimentation, adopting new forms of expression.

Creationism and Surrealism

• Creationism aspired to create reality within the work itself, employing various language games to achieve this.
• Surrealism, of French origin, aimed to express emotions and subconscious thoughts.

Noucentisme: The Generation of 1914

In the second decade of the 20th century, a group of writers emerged, characterized by intellectualism, a European outlook, and a quest for pure art—an art free of ties with reality and all forms of sentimentality. This group, known as the Generation

20th-Century British Novelists and Writers

To the present day. Narrative: the utopian novel.

Aldous Huxley

He was born into a well-known family of scientists and writers. He was educated at Eton and Oxford. He suffered personal tragedies, including near blindness at the age of 16. He worked as a journalist and lived in France and Italy. He died in 1937 in California. His style is cynical and hopeless. He uses a precise, satirical, brilliant, and intelligent language, with wit and confidence.

Works:

• Short stories: Limbo
• Essays: essayist who writes novels
• Poetry: Leda
• Travel book: Beyond the Mexique Bay
• Novels: Crome Yellow

George Orwell

His real name is Eric A. Blair. He was born in India and studied at Eton. He worked as a journalist; he came to Spain...

18th-Century Literary Masters: Journalism and the Novel

The Age of Reason and the Birth of Modern Journalism

The early 18th century, often called the Age of Reason, saw a significant shift in literary focus, marked by the rise of periodical essays and modern journalism, shaping public opinion and morality. The following figures were instrumental in this development:

Richard Steele

• Biography: Born in Dublin. He studied at Oxford University but did not finish his degree, subsequently entering the army.
• Personality & Style: Known for being impulsive and moralistic. His writing style was informal and intimate.
• Key Role: His most important role was in the periodical The Tatler.
• Major Works: The Christian Hero, The Funeral, and other comedies.
• Journalism:

Ancient Greek Poleis: A Reflection

The Greek poleis, or city-states, emerged as a new civilization rooted in trade and the adoption of the alphabet. These small, independent entities, unlike the larger Phoenician city-states, numbered around 200 in Greece, compared to the 10-15 in Phoenicia. Commerce was central to their existence. Around 1000-900 BC, these cities thrived in the eastern Mediterranean, encompassing Greece, Turkey (Ionia), Lebanon, and Israel. They dominated Mediterranean trade, mastering navigation and extending their reach to North Africa and the Atlantic. Cities like Siron and Tire (Phoenician) were known for their excellent ports. Unlike Egypt and Mesopotamia, where agriculture was the primary source of wealth, the Phoenicians...

The Chaplain

The Chaplain was the seventh master of Lazarus. He is an opportunist who uses others for profit. He provided Lazarus with his first paying job. Lazarus spent four years with this master to receive the money he needed to buy clothes and a sword. When Lazarus obtained what he needed, he left his master and his craft.

The Sheriff

The Sheriff was the eighth master of Lazarus. The sheriff represents the law of that time. Lazarus found the trade of his master very dangerous, so he left him.

The Archpriest of San Salvador

The Archpriest of San Salvador was the ninth and last master of Lazarus. This is the love that introduces the wife of Lazarus. This also represents the corruption of the clergy, as there were stories in that area regarding...

The Art of Classical Oratory

Oratory is defined as the art of speaking persuasively in public.

Oratory is a literary genre that presents unique characteristics. First, it requires a political environment of freedom to develop, as it is stifled without freedom of expression. Hence, its boom occurred during Athenian democracy and the Roman Republic, followed by a decline in the imperial era.

Furthermore, like drama, public speaking requires a live audience and performance rather than mere reading, which is characteristic of historiography or novels. Only when Greek and Roman orators became aware of the importance of their speeches and the limitations of oral tradition did they begin to record and edit them. For instance, Cicero employed a slave...

Writers and the Literary Market

Two literary movements were born: the group of Boedo and the group of Florida. The reading public had grown dramatically, a fact that influenced the perception of the writer. Previously, the man of letters had been viewed as an 'enlightened' figure, whose literary activity was removed from the hectic office. In principle, the writer was not seen as a 'professional,' nor was he, in fact, one.

Writers like Leopoldo Lugones had imposed their presence in national literature, but these were professionals who often came from more affluent classes. In contrast, emerging writers, whose social classes were much more modest, gained increasing participation in society. Roberto Arlt best represents this new figure of the writer....

Medieval Spanish Poetic Forms

Jarchas

The Jarchas are short lyrical poems that often served as the conclusion to longer poems called muwassahas. They were composed in Arabic, Hebrew, or Mozarabic (Romance language written in Arabic script). A Jarcha can reach up to eight lines, but most commonly feature four or eight syllables in the main lines, rhyming with six-syllable lines and a concluding consonant rhyme. The central theme is love. The speaker often expresses the suffering of a girl in love to her mother, sisters, or friends within an urban setting. There is limited use of recozida (refrain) for expressive purposes.

Cantigas de Amigo

In the Cantigas de Amigo, the speaker also expresses love, typically directed toward their mother, sister,...

San Juan de la Cruz (1542-1591)

San Juan de la Cruz undertook to reform the Carmelite order, aiming for monks to return to a more austere and contemplative lifestyle. His reform efforts led to his imprisonment.

Major Works

• Dark Night of the Soul
• Spiritual Canticle
• Living Flame of Love

Literary Style and Influence

His literary style was influenced by Italian metrics (like the lira) and biblical texts. He expressed the union of the soul with God as a loving relationship, where the soul (the beloved) seeks Christ (the Beloved). He utilized symbols drawn from nature, such as the night and fire.

Lasting Relevance

Centuries later, his work influenced the poetic current known as Symbolism, which recognized San Juan de la Cruz as an important forerunner.

Spanish