Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for University

Fascist Italy: A Historical Analysis

Crisis of the Liberal Regime (Early 20th Century)

Following the First World War, Italy faced a profound social and political crisis. Widespread strikes led to factory occupations and significant social unrest, particularly in rural areas. This period coincided with a deep crisis of the monarchy and the liberal political system. Traditional liberal parties lost parliamentary influence and, in a strategic move, allied themselves with nationalists and fascists against a common perceived enemy: the Socialists. The Socialists, despite their growing popular support, were systematically excluded from government, contributing to political instability.

Public frustration was further compounded by the outcomes of the...

Stratified Society in the Ancien Régime

One of the main features of the Ancien Régime was civil inequality, dividing society into two distinct groups: the privileged and the underprivileged.

Privileged Classes

The nobility and clergy were the privileged classes.

The Nobility

The nobility lived on rents and accumulated great wealth.

The Clergy

The clergy lived on income derived from the exploitation of their land and the heritage of the tithe.

Underprivileged Classes

The Third Estate was the sector of the underprivileged. They were the vast majority of the population and encompassed very different people, both economically and socially.

The Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie included the great artisans, merchants, and bankers.

The Working Classes

The urban working

The East-West Bloc Politics

The Aftermath of World War II

World War II (WWII) fundamentally transformed global politics. Although primarily centered in Europe, the conflict commanded global attention and extended its reach, affecting regions like the Philippines and Africa.

The war resulted in catastrophic losses, including an estimated 50 million dead. It was characterized by mass killings of civilians, such as the Nazi Holocaust, and large-scale deportations. The first-time use of the atomic bomb demonstrated the immense military strength of the United States (US).

Widespread violations of human rights during the conflict led directly to the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

Shifting Global Power Dynamics

The end of WWII marked the definitive...

Cubism

Dadaism

How Civil War Nationalism Affected Diverse Groups

The Civil War spurred a significant impulse of nationalism in the United States, which affected various groups differently. Although the war's purpose shifted substantially from its beginning to its end, evidence shows that different populations experienced varied outcomes. The unique context of the Civil War aligned African Americans with the preservation and expansion of the United States, while Native Americans and Chinese Immigrants were largely defined as outsiders.

African Americans and Union Victory

Initially, the Union's primary motivation for fighting was to preserve the nation. When this motivation evolved to include ending slavery, it carried profound implications for African Americans....

Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)

6. Know what AFDC is and how it applies to people. Aid to Families with Dependent Children

Key Political Concepts

• Neo-institutional: The way they interact and how they affect society.
• Interest Group: Organization of people who work together to protect and promote the government. Two categories: economic and noneconomic.
• Entrepreneurial: A person who organizes and operates a business/es, takes risk.
• Client: Government Owned Enterprise (GOE), prior to marketing or sales activities.
• Majoritarian: Democracy rule of society’s citizens.

Introducing a Bill in Congress

8. How can a bill be introduced in Congress? Members of Congress are the only ones who can introduce the bill at any time the House of Senate

ORIGINS, HISTORY & IDEOLOGY OF REPUBLICAN AND DEMOCRATIC PARTIES

COMMON GROUND: REPUBLICANISM

A form of government where leaders are elected for a specific period by citizens. Key concepts include the importance of civic virtue, universal political participation, separation of powers (to avoid corruption), and political liberty.

First Political Division: The Constitution

The first political division centered around the Constitution, highlighting the differences between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.

JEFFERSON OR HAMILTON?

At the root of two different visions regarding government and politics are two founding fathers and their views:

1. Jeffersonian View (3rd US President): Rejected the European path, favoring an agrarian democracy of small proprietors

Roots of Colonial America: Pilgrims, Puritans, and Settlers

The first Europeans to establish settlements were the Spaniards: there was a failed attempt in Carolina in 1526, and in 1565, they established a settlement in Florida, which became the first permanent European settlement. In 1578, Queen Elizabeth granted permission to British sailors to establish a colony. In 1584, Walter Raleigh sent two ships to explore, and they settled in Virginia. In May 1607, Jamestown was founded. Despite many deaths, the colony began to export tobacco. By 1710, the population reached 78,000.

Colonization was motivated by several factors:

• During the 16th century, England was a tumultuous place with food shortages and a lack of jobs in agriculture.
• The need to reduce

Evolution of European Union Foreign Policy

Foreign Policy

Early Cooperation and the EPC

1. In the 1970s and 1980s, Member States (MS) began to cooperate on Foreign Policy (FP).
2. The European Political Cooperation (EPC) marked the start of a common FP and was recognized in Title III of the Single European Act (SEA).
3. Title III was not added to the EEC Treaty because Member States did not want legislative processes to apply to FP; therefore, the EPC remained voluntary.

Factors Driving Change

Five key factors provoked a shift in policy:

• The end of the Cold War: Nuclear and military capacity became less critical, while economic strength and geographical position gained importance.
• German reunification: Germany pressured Member States to recognize Croatia and

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) was fought among several European powers, principally the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal, and the Duchy of Savoy, against the Kingdoms of France and Spain and the Electorate of Bavaria, over a possible unification of the Kingdoms of Spain and France under a single Bourbon monarch. Such an unification would have drastically changed the European balance of power.

Recognition of Bourbon Philip V as King of Spain

It resulted in the recognition of the Bourbon Philip V as King of Spain while requiring him both to renounce any claim to the French throne and to cede much of the European Spanish Crown's possessions.

Background

In 1700,...