Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

The Catholic Monarchy and the Foundation of the Modern State

Political Institutions

The marriage of the Catholic Monarchs united the crowns of Castile and Aragon under a single sovereign. While each crown retained its own customs, language, and laws, the monarchs introduced reforms to strengthen royal authority, resulting in an authoritarian monarchy supported by new administrative bodies known as councils.

Castile served as the foundation of the Catholic monarchy due to its larger population and superior economic resources. Key political reforms included:

• Remodeling the Royal Council: Structured during the Cortes of Toledo in 1480 into specialized rooms for justice and administration, serving as a precedent for the Habsburg boards.
• Judicial Reform:

The Reign of Elizabeth II and the Liberal Regime

This period coincided with the coming of age of the Queen, who ascended the throne at the age of three. A regency was established, exercised first by her mother (1833–1840) and later by General Espartero (1840–1843). Liberal governments conducted a total dismantling of the Ancien Régime gradually.

Transition from Absolutism to Liberalism (1833–1835)

The transition from the absolutist state of Ferdinand VII to the liberal state of Elizabeth II (1833–1835) featured the following:

• Monarchical liberal reformers and moderates: These individuals had returned from exile thanks to the amnesty granted by the government. They were in favor of combining the former state with liberal principles, removing

Key Features of Gothic Architecture

A gable, also known as a coronation or pinion, is a canted triangular pediment formed by two straight lines and a sharp apex. It was commonly used in the first period of Gothic buildings.

The groin vault is a vault type characteristic of Gothic architecture. It is formed by the crossing, or intersection, of two pointed barrel vaults.

A flying buttress is an external structural element with a half-bow shape. It gathers the pressure at the springing of the vault and transmits it to a buttress, or bracket, attached to the wall of an aisle.

A buttress, also called a stapes, is a thickening of a wall, usually on the exterior, used to transmit lateral loads to the foundation.

A Gothic-style archway features two broad

The Independent Emirate of Al-Andalus

In the mid-eighth century, when the caliphs of Damascus were overthrown by the Abbasids of Baghdad, the last surviving member of the Umayyad family, Abd al-Rahman I (756-788), established himself in Al-Andalus. Soon after, Abd al-Rahman broke with the Caliphate of Baghdad and proclaimed himself an independent emir. Political unity with Damascus was broken, but the religious authority of the caliph was still accepted.

The Caliphate of Cordoba

In 929, Abd al-Rahman III felt sufficiently strong to declare political independence and proclaimed himself Caliph of the Believers of Al-Andalus. Thus was born the Caliphate of Cordoba, marking a new era of power and prestige for Islamic Spain.

Fragmentation: The Taifa

Imperialism

Imperialism was the first consequence of the Industrial Revolution. Industrialized countries imposed their dominance on new territories to expand their production and obtain raw materials.

Underlying Economic, Ideological, and Cultural Causes of Imperialism

Queen Elizabeth II

Ferdinand VII died in 1833, leaving his daughter, Elizabeth II, who was only 3 years old, as his successor. Absolutist parties supported Don Carlos, brother of the late king, leading to a civil war that would be recognized as the First Carlist War (1834-1839).

The Revolutionary Six Years (Sexenio Revolucionario)

Once Isabel II was dethroned, a provisional government and a constituent assembly were formed in 1869. This assembly widely recognized freedoms, including...

Enlightened Despotism in the 18th Century

During the mid-18th century, the philosophical ideas of the Enlightenment spread widely. These philosophies considered that equality and tolerance should be the basis of human relationships. Such ideas influenced some European monarchs. These rulers fostered a new form of government: Enlightened Despotism.

This system aimed to implement reforms for the benefit of all subjects, but without their direct participation ('everything for the people, nothing by the people'). This era promoted significant economic and social reforms.

The Treaty of Versailles (1919)

The Treaty of Versailles was the most important agreement regulating peace with Germany following World War I.

Consequences of the Treaty:

• The victorious

Timeline of Major 20th Century Events

• 1909: Tragic Week
• 1930: Pact of San Sebastian
• 1931: Japan invades Manchuria
• 1933: Abandonment of the German Society of Nations; Older Homes
• 1936: Formation of the Rome-Berlin Axis
• 1937: Northern Campaign of the Spanish Civil War
• 1940: Invasion of Norway
• 1943: Battle of Guadalcanal
• 1944: Landing in Normandy
• 1945: Conquest of Berlin; Yalta Conference; San Francisco Conference; Atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; Fall of the Berlin Wall

Key Figures and Political Entities

• Vichy France: The region and colonies ruled by General Petain under the influence of Hitler.
• General Tojo: A military leader who established a dictatorship.
• United Nations (UN): An international organization focused on peacekeeping, governed by a Security

First Elections and the UCD Government

The first elections saw a majority for the UCD (Union of the Democratic Centre), led by Adolfo Suárez, with the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party), led by Felipe González, as the main opposition. Other significant parties included the PCE (Communist Party of Spain), led by Santiago Carrillo, and the AP (People's Alliance), led by Manuel Fraga.

The first UCD government took several key actions:

• It appointed a committee to draft a new constitution.
• It addressed the economic crisis by signing the Moncloa Pacts, aimed at modernizing the Spanish economy and increasing social security contributions.
• It implemented a tax reform.
• It decreed a second amnesty.

The 1978 Constitution

The 1978 Constitution established...

World War II's Impact on Latin America

During World War II, the process of import substitution was significantly accentuated in Latin America. Since 1939, nations in the region obtained favorable prices for exports of food and commodities, as demand increased during the six years of intense warfare. The USA urged Latin American nations to cooperate in the war effort and purchased their vital mineral inputs. Thus, the war allowed Latin American nations to accumulate foreign exchange reserves, besides stimulating the process of industrialization.

The Rio Conference and Latin American Alignment

During the conflict, most Latin American nations aligned with the Allies. From the U.S. entry into the war in 1941, these nations led the break with the Axis...

Historical Concepts & Periods

Early Historical Terms

What did 'Burg' mean in the Middle Ages? It comes from 'village'.

What did 'Burgher' mean in the Modern Age? Burghers were privileged and often very rich.

Late Middle Ages Crisis

Was there a crisis in the Late Middle Ages? Yes, there was a lot of hunger, wars, and epidemics.

Key Historical Definitions

• Diplomatic Network: Used to maintain relations with other kings.
• Dynasty: The union of people who govern a country within the same family.
• Matrimonial Alliances: Marriages to secure land or interests.

Political Changes in Europe

What political change occurred in Europe? Authoritarian monarchies were created.

The Catholic Monarchs

Dynastic Union Significance

Why is the term 'peninsular realms' associated