Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

Definition of Imperialism

Imperialism is when a nation extends its control over another country's government and economy. The conquering country is the mother country, and the acquired territories are the colonies.

During the Early Modern Period, Britain, Spain, and Portugal were already colonial powers.

"New Imperialism" began in the mid-19th century, led by Britain and France. The USA, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Japan joined later.

Factors of Imperialism

• Economic: Industrialization increased the demand for natural resources and places to trade manufactured goods (capitalism).
• Religious: Converting native people to Christianity was used as a justification for imperialism.
• Political:
  1. Nationalism: The prestige of possessing colonies increased nationalist

The Spanish Habsburgs and Their Validos

The seventeenth century was a time of profound political crisis in Spain. The Spanish kings of the House of Habsburg—Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II—are often referred to as the 'Spanish Habsburgs' or 'Austrias'. Often perceived as weak or disengaged, these monarchs largely entrusted the government to their favorite nobles, known as validos or 'privados'. The valido held a political office akin to a prime minister, advising the monarch, supervising councils, and controlling government documents.

Philip III delegated power to the Duke of Lerma, who became notoriously corrupt and wealthy. Lerma notably moved the court to Valladolid (1600-1606) and oversaw the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609.

Philip

Military Expansion & Discoveries

Military Expansion Outside the Iberian Peninsula

Italy

The forces of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, "The Great Captain," defeated the French and secured the Aragonese territories of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia.

The Atlantic Ocean

Castilla's Atlantic expansion began with the conquest and colonization of the Canary Islands (completed in 1496) and the discovery of America in 1492.

The Discovery of America

Portuguese Discoveries

In the 15th century, Portugal was the leading power in geographical discoveries. The Portuguese established trading posts on the African coast to obtain slaves, ivory, and gold. This exploration was supported by Henry the Navigator, who founded a school of navigators and mapmakers.

Christopher

Italian Unification

Background

In 1848, Italy was divided into seven kingdoms. There was a strong desire to unify the country, but discussions arose about who should lead the process:

• The Pope (Pius IX) was considered, but he refused to fight against the Austrians.
• The King of Piedmont, governed by the House of Savoy, was the other option.

Ultimately, the House of Savoy was chosen to lead the unification process.

1st Stage (1859-1861)

Piedmont, under its Prime Minister Cavour, secured the support of France (Napoleon III) in exchange for Nice and Savoy. The Austrians were defeated in Magenta and Solferino, leading to the annexation of Lombardy and Central Italy by the Italians. In the south, Garibaldi, with his "Thousand Red Shirts" (or "Expedition...

Nazi Racial Ideology and Early Persecution

Defining the "Aryan Race" and "Sub-Humans"

Adolf Hitler propagated the belief that the "Aryan race" represented the ideal human form: blond hair, blue eyes, tall, and athletic. Conversely, he declared that Jewish people and Roma (often referred to as "Gypsies") were "sub-human" and undeserving of life.

The 1933 Sterilization Law

The Nazi regime swiftly implemented its discriminatory policies. In 1933, the Sterilization Law was passed, authorizing the forced sterilization of individuals deemed to have hereditary illnesses, such as mental disabilities. This horrific practice also extended to "tramps" and beggars. It is believed that approximately 700,000 people were forcibly sterilized under this law.

Expansion

3, The cultural legacy of the feudal system: pilgrimages and crusades.

The Foral Regime in the Basque Country

The foral regime, a distinctive political and juridical feature of the Basque Country, spanned from the Middle Ages to the Contemporary era. It recognized separate laws, taxation, and courts in each province: the Lordship of Biscay, the Province of Gipuzkoa, and the Hermandad of Araba. Despite their distinct legal systems, these provinces shared many similarities.

The foral regime established a system of shared sovereignty between the King and local authorities. The relationship between the foruak (Basque foral laws), other bodies of law, and sovereignty remains a complex issue to this day. The Basque provinces viewed their foruak as akin to a constitution, guaranteeing their traditional rights. Conversely,...

The Tsar's Abdication: A Direct Consequence of the February Revolution

The Tsar's abdication in 1917 was a direct consequence of the February Revolution. Forced to relinquish his position, and with his son's grave health concerns, he offered the throne to his brother. However, his brother's refusal marked the end of tsarism in Russia.

The February Uprising

In February 1917, the citizens of Petrograd took to the streets in a primarily peaceful strike, aiming to make their grievances heard by the Tsar. Unfortunately, the Tsar, ill-prepared for leadership and overwhelmed by the situation, remained indecisive. His only desire was to reunite with his family in Petrograd. This lack of action prompted a harsh response from the army, resulting in numerous...

The Russian Revolution

Domestic Policy Under Nicholas II

Nicholas II, an absolute monarch, ruled Russia with the support of the nobility and the Orthodox Church. However, several clandestine parties opposed his regime, including:

• Constitutional Democratic Party: Advocated for transforming Russia into a constitutional monarchy.
• Socialist Revolutionary Party: Sought to collectivize land ownership.
• Mensheviks: Favored a gradual transition to socialism through liberal reforms.
• Bolsheviks: Aimed to establish a proletariat dictatorship led by the communist party.

Russia's economy was primarily agrarian, with 80% of the population being peasants. Although serfdom had been abolished, the relationship between nobility and peasants remained feudal. Industrialization...

Between 1870 and 1914, Europe experienced a period known as the "Armed Peace." Despite the absence of major wars, tensions simmered among European nations, leading to a significant arms race. Countries dedicated a substantial portion of their resources to military production, creating an atmosphere of unease and anticipation.

The Importance of the German Empire

Following its unification in 1871, Germany emerged as the dominant power in Europe, driven by its robust economic and military development. German foreign policy during this period can be divided into two distinct phases:

The Bismarckian System (1871-1890)

Under Emperor Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Germany pursued a diplomatic strategy aimed at maintaining the balance of power...