Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

The Nazi Regime in Germany

Establishment of the Dictatorship

In 1933, the Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, established a dictatorship in Germany. All political parties and trade unions were dissolved, the Reichstag (parliament) was effectively rendered powerless, elections were abolished, and individual liberties were suppressed. A systematic persecution of political opponents commenced, with only the Nazi Party (NSDAP) being authorized.

Workers were compelled to join the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront), the sole permitted trade union, which operated under National Socialist principles. The public administration was "purified" through laws, such as the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, authorizing the dismissal...

Isabelline Culture and its Features

Key aspects of Isabelline culture:

• Public education was promoted through the Moyano Law of 1857. These measures primarily affected the middle classes and urban areas. However, illiteracy remained widespread among the urban popular classes and rural areas.
• The development of the press influenced public opinion and cultural centers.
• Museums multiplied, including the Museo del Prado (1819, formerly the Royal Museum of Painting and Sculpture), the Archaeological Museum (1867), and the Ateneo de Madrid (1829).

Literature

• Romanticism: Notable authors include the Duke of Rivas, Zorrilla, Espronceda, Bécquer, and Rosalía de Castro.
• Realism: Represented by Benito Pérez Galdós and Leopoldo Alas, "Clarín".
• Naturalism:

The Popular Revolt and the Formation of Juntas

On May 2, 1808, as the royal family prepared to depart for Bayonne, a crowd gathered at the Royal Palace, attempting to prevent their departure. The ensuing revolt, though severely repressed by General Murat's troops, ignited a popular resistance movement aimed at halting the advance of the imperial forces.

In regions like Galicia and Andalusia, Juntas of arms and defense originated, formed in response to the Abdications of Bayonne. Initially, local Juntas (comprising clerics, soldiers, nobles, etc.) emerged. Shortly after, provincial Juntas assumed sovereignty in the absence of the king, declaring war on Napoleon with the support of Great Britain.

In September 1808, these Juntas sent representatives...

Novel Renaissance: New and Old Genres

Pastoral

Pastoral novels feature pastors and characters who are always involved in love affairs and set in an idealized place.

Byzantine

Byzantine novels star characters who are lovers that go through many difficulties, such as penalties and separations, but are finally reunited with a happy ending.

Picaresque

Picaresque novels star a rogue who must contrive to survive.

Cavalry

Cavalry novels had still grown in the revival, but they fell out of fashion because the public began to weary of their feats.

Sentimental

Sentimental novels look like pastoral novels, but the characters are too tearful, and people do not believe them and get tired of them.

The Picaresque Novel

The Picaresque novel appeared in 1554 with the publication...

Stalinization: Death Brings Relaxation

A communist named Stalin died. Khrushchev assumed power. The USSR became a paternalistic and bureaucratic system. It assumed a new socialist bloc: condemning Stalinism (considered an aberration and denouncing its crimes), fewer purges, and formulated principles of detente and peaceful coexistence between capitalism and communism. In the satellite countries, there were no reactions in Czechoslovakia and East Germany (strikes and riots), but there were in Poland and Hungary (communist reforms but still loyal to Moscow). Khrushchev's failures in experiments and economic planning were criticized and never bore fruit.

Stagnation

The CPSU deposed Khrushchev. A stage of stagnation began. Technology and production...

War of the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation (1836-1839)

Causes:

The governments of Bolivia and Peru aimed to expand their borders southward. In 1836, Bolivia occupied the province of Tarija, and Argentina granted political asylum to some Unitarians.

Development:

Chile and Argentina declared war on the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation.

Consequences:

The combined Chilean and Argentine forces defeated the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation, leading to its immediate dissolution.

French Blockade (1838-1840)

Causes:

France sought new markets for its surplus production. Additionally, it demanded that French residents in Buenos Aires enjoy the same privileges as the British, including exemption from military service.

Development:

A French fleet blockaded the port...

The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in late 1700's France. Several factors contributed to this pivotal moment in history:

1. Abuses of the Ancien Régime: The old order was marked by inequality and privilege.
2. Economic Crisis: Widespread poverty and financial instability fueled discontent.
3. Failure of Louis XVI: The king's ineffective leadership exacerbated the problems.
4. Influence of Enlightenment Philosophers: New ideas challenged the existing power structures.

Economic Crisis and Attempts at Reform

To address the economic crisis, Louis XVI appointed economist Robert Turgot as his finance minister. Turgot proposed strict savings by cutting public expenditure and court privileges, and suppressed restrictions on...

The Russian Revolution: From Tsarist Autocracy to the USSR

Tsarist Autocracy

In the Tsarist empire, the Tsar's authority was absolute. Its economy was the most backward in Europe. Political power was entirely in the hands of the government, ruling by decree without a constitution or parliament. A vast bureaucracy, a powerful Orthodox Church, and the army dominated the empire. Land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the privileged aristocracy, and the peasant population was subjected to a near-feudal system.

Some parts of the empire experienced industrial development driven by foreign capital, leading to the emergence of an industrial proletariat. These workers, influenced by Marxist ideas, founded the Russian Social Democratic Party, which...

Rights Defender

A rights defender is a person who, individually or with others, acts to promote or protect human rights. There are no distinctions based on sex, age, race, or religion.

Maintaining Peace

Maintaining peace requires resignation, strength, and commitment to resolving employment disputes peacefully.

Self-Determination of Peoples

People will not accept any sovereignty other than their own.

Cooperation Between Peoples

International cooperation is fostered through organizations focusing on:

• Education, science, and culture (UNESCO)
• Labor (ILO)
• Health (WHO)
• Legal protection for children (UNICEF)
• Food and agriculture (FAO)

Important decisions are made by the Security Council (U.S., Britain, France, USSR, China).

The Cold War (1945-1991)

Political, economic,...

Nationalist Faction (1936)

Political Power: Military control in Nationalist areas, contrasting with the Republic. Sanjurjo and Mola initially led, but Sanjurjo's death in a plane crash altered the leadership.

Military Command: A five-member junta (Mola, Cabanelles, Saliquet, Ponte, Dávila) directed the Nationalist forces, emphasizing hierarchical obedience.

Economy: The army controlled production and distribution to sustain the war effort, ensuring food supply and militarizing the economy.

Social Repression: Suppression of opposing ideas was enforced on both sides.

Nationalist Initiatives (Oct 1936 - May 1937)

Military Campaigns: Attempts to expand territory through Madrid and Málaga campaigns, involving international troops, notably Italian forces....