Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

The 19th Century Industrial Revolution in Europe

The 19th century in Europe witnessed a large industrial and political development, along with advancements in boat technology and the steam railway, as well as electricity. This was also the period of consolidation of constitutional liberal states, the rise of Italy and Germany, the expansion of the labor movement, improvements in living standards, and demographic growth. All of this, together with scientific and technological progress, led to a new industrial revolution, which can be divided into two stages of early development and industrialization marked by transformations.

The crowd favors momentum as industrializing powers seek new markets and sources of raw materials. For reasons of national...

Dominant Europe: Colonialism in the 19th Century

Causes of Colonialism

In the last third of the 19th century, Europe, by exploiting its superior technical and financial capabilities, set out to conquer Africa and Asia, as there were more colonial empires in Europe. The territories created several causes of colonialism:

• Economic Factors: European powers sought new markets and raw materials. They wanted to buy better materials at other places where labor was cheaper and more profitable.
• Demographic Factors: There was an excess of population in Europe, causing difficulties in finding jobs and increasing social tensions. Colonial policy meant the possibility of emigrating to other lands and improving living and labor conditions.
• Political Factors: The

T5. The War of Independence (Carlos IV)

Spain went to war against France (1793-1795). Spain was defeated and signed a treaty making it an ally of France. In 1807, the two countries signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, agreeing to invade Portugal, which required passage through Spain. This French presence in Spanish territory created unease. Fernando instigated the Mutiny of Aranjuez, which provoked Charles IV to abdicate in favor of his son, Fernando VII. Napoleon summoned the royal family to Bayonne and forced them to abdicate in favor of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Before the abductions, on May 2, 1808, the war began in Zaragoza and Gerona. Cities such as these were under siege, and there were also guerrilla actions. In 1813, the Treaty

The Great Depression and Global Consequences

The U.S. crisis extended globally, stretching the world economy to its limits. Consequences included:

• Demographic Shifts: The crisis halted population growth and transoceanic economic migrations.
• Economic Decline: Decreased agricultural and industrial production, severely impacting foreign trade.
• Mass Unemployment.
• Political Instability: The crisis favored the rise of political ideologies and totalitarianism, challenging existing democracies.

Seeking Solutions: Autarky and the New Deal

To solve the crisis, some countries promoted economic self-sufficiency (autarky) and the creation and intervention of State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in the economy.

U.S. President Roosevelt launched a recovery program in 1933...

The Origins and Alliances of World War I

WWI, or The Great War, broke out in Europe in 1914 and covered a large territorial extension. The conflict involved two primary factions:

• The Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, which Bulgaria and other states joined later.
• The Allies or Triple Entente: France, Russia, the UK, and Serbia, which the USA and other countries joined later.

Major Causes of the Great War

Political and Territorial Conflicts

Political conflicts between the major powers arose due to territorial disputes and nationalistic problems, such as the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. Additional tensions stemmed from colonialism and imperialism, including clashes between imperialist powers for the control of certain...

Bolsheviks

The Bolshevik movement arose during the crisis of the Tsarist Empire. Dissatisfaction at the political level was due to the autocratic government of the Tsars and led to political opposition made up of liberal bourgeois parties and Marxist revolutionary parties.

Soviets

Soviets were assemblies of workers and soldiers during the Russian Revolution.

USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)

The USSR was created in 1912 (comprising Russia and Asian republics). It was organized as a federal state and adopted the NEP (New Economic Policy), which combined capitalist and communist policies.

Dawes Plan

This plan established a circular flow of payments designed to stabilize post-WWI reparations:

• The U.S. lent money to Germany to pay reparations.

Franco’s Dictatorship

1. Franco: Caudillo of Spain

He had all the power. He was Head of State, Head of Government, and the Supreme General of the Armed Forces. There was no division of power in Spain.

2. NO-DO

Noticiarios y documentales (NO-DO) was a state-controlled series of cinema newsreels in Spain (1943-1981). The NO-DO was watched by all citizens at the cinema, and it was full of one-sided (national) propaganda.

3. Sección Femenina

Sección Femenina was the female branch of the Falange, which guided the life of women.

4. Propaganda

Propaganda was strongly used by the National side, and thanks to the one used for the Referendum of 1947 (regarding the law of succession), Franco got power for life. Apart from that, he was given the right to choose...

Causes of the February Revolution

The February Revolution was provoked by Russian military failures during the First World War, as well as public dissatisfaction with the way the country was run on the home front. The economic challenges faced due to fighting a total war also contributed.

Short-Term Triggers

• The Tsar being away from Petrograd
• Contempt for the Tsarina
• The army's mutiny against the Tsar's rule
• Unusually mild winter weather
• Demonstrations in support of the Duma
• The International Women's Day march
• Industrial unrest and strikes
• Announcement of bread rationing and food shortages in Petrograd

Tsar Nicholas II's Response

Nicholas sent the police and soldiers into Petrograd to end the unrest. They opened fire on more than 50 people, which some...

The Rise of Islam

Origins and Expansion

Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula, where Arab farmers and traders worshipped multiple gods. Mecca served as their religious center. Muhammad, born in Mecca, emerged as a prophet of Allah (God). Despite facing persecution in Mecca for his teachings, Muhammad's message spread, marking the beginning of Islam.

In 622 CE, Muhammad's escape to Medina (the Hijra) marked the start of the Muslim era. He successfully converted the people of Medina, and by his death in 632 CE, a significant portion of the Arab population had embraced Islam.

The Koran and Islamic Society

The Koran, the sacred book of Islam, emphasizes the oneness of Allah. Islamic society's core principles, derived from the Koran, include:

• Allah'