Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Primary education

Political Transformations: Enlightened Despotism

In the second half of the eighteenth century, some monarchs attempted to reconcile absolutism with the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment. Consequently, Enlightened Despotism emerged, a form of government characterized by the principle "Everything for the people, nothing by the people." In this system, the monarch continued to concentrate all powers but considered themselves the primary servant of the state, undertaking reforms aimed at achieving progress and the happiness of their subjects.

Enlightened Despotism was implemented in many European states, including:

• France under Louis XV
• Spain under Charles III
• Portugal under Joseph I
• Russia under Catherine II
• Austria under Joseph II
• Prussia under

The Reign of Charles I and the Spanish Empire

Charles I gathered a great empire thanks to the heritage of his grandparents, joined by his election as the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1519. Internal conflicts and revolts surged, such as the Comunidades in Castile and the Germanías in Valencia and Mallorca. External conflicts developed against France for control of the Italian Peninsula (where Charles V was victorious), against the German Protestant princes who sought religious freedom and political independence, and against the imperial domination of the Mediterranean by the Turks.

The Era of Philip II and Global Expansion

Philip II, in addition to the throne of Spain and its possessions in America and the Philippines, was the lord of important...

Greek Architecture

Introduction

In Greece, a series of models arises in sciences, art, etc., which then will expand through European influence. For this reason, Greece is considered the origin of Western civilization.

Greek art developed on the Balkan peninsula, where Greek civilization flourished. The Greek world was maintained until the time of Alexander the Great, with political factions in a series of city-states (polis), of which the most important was Athens.

We note three features of the Greek world affecting art:

1. Anthropocentrism: Man is the center. Any Greek cultural event is preceded by the importance given to men.
2. Greek thought: The Greeks were the first to use rational thought, leading to sciences such as philosophy and physics.
3. Religion:

Renaissance Origins and Key Concepts

The Renaissance, meaning "rebirth," represented a recovery and renewal of interest in texts from Ancient Greek and Roman culture. This movement started in Italy during the 14th century.

The Shift from Medieval to Modern

This was an era of discovery and questioning. Key milestones include:

• 1492: Arrival of Europeans in America.
• Scientific advancements: Theories by Copernicus and Galileo.
• Humanist thought: Erasmus.

The period marked a transition from the medieval period, focused on the Church and God, to the Renaissance focus on Reason and Man.

The Renaissance in England (1485–1660)

The English Renaissance began in 1485 with the end of the War of the Roses and the start of the Tudor period.

The Tudor Dynasty

Henry

The Abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade

The campaign to abolish the transatlantic slave trade and, subsequently, the institution of slavery itself, was driven by a confluence of economic, humanitarian, and moral-religious factors.

Key Figures in Abolition

Three prominent figures were instrumental in the movement to end slave trafficking:

• James Ramsay: Advocated for abolition primarily on economic grounds. He argued that greater financial prosperity could be achieved through the exchange of goods rather than the trade of enslaved people.
• Olaudah Equiano: Championed abolition from a humanitarian perspective, emphasizing the inherent unethical nature of slavery. His personal narrative powerfully illustrated the human cost of the trade.
• William

The Enduring Impact of History and Religion on Society

Both history and religion have played a significant role in shaping contemporary society. Crucially, the effects of the slave trade continue to impact the world significantly today. James Baldwin, David Walker, and Barack Obama are all significant figures in the movement for equality in America, though they operated in different time periods.

James Baldwin: The American Optic

James Baldwin, an American novelist and essayist, focused extensively on the experience of being Black in America. He articulated the pervasive societal message:

All you are ever told in this country about being black is that it is a terrible thing to be and that the whole American optic is based on the necessity of keeping

The Contrasts of the 1920s

During the 1920s, low taxes led to a dramatic rise in living standards, and the consumption of goods and services increased. However, overproduction by factories and farms, overprotection of domestic business through tariff barriers, and speculative mania led to the Wall Street crash in 1929, marking the beginning of the worst depression in American history.

Social Tensions and Ultra-Patriotism

A mood of ultra-patriotism prevailed during and after World War I, targeting Germans, political radicals, and those not of Anglo-American stock. The tough Sedition Acts targeted anyone who spoke or wrote any ‘disloyal, profane, scurrilous or abusive language against the government, flag or uniform of the United States’.

• German

The Crimean War (1853–1856)

We know all of that because a new figure emerged during the year: the War Correspondent. This was a new role, and thanks to these correspondents, we learned about terrible disasters. People in England began to know about the miserable conditions of the soldiers. It is estimated that 8 out of 10 casualties were due to the deplorable army camps, not the war itself.

William Howard Russell was the first War Correspondent. He made the war known in England, writing all the chronicles of the Crimean War so everyone could follow the conflict. He was also responsible for the appearance of another person: Florence Nightingale, who was a nurse during the war. She became another emblematic Victorian figure.

Consequences of the

Then a second woman appeared in his life, Anne Boleyn. This fact, together with the impossibility of having a son with Catherine, led him to want to end his marriage. However, it was difficult because Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, who sacked Rome and imprisoned the Pope, so he could not dissolve the matrimony. To solve the problem, he created a parallel church in England: the Anglican Church, and gave himself the title of Supreme Head. So, finally, he could divorce Catherine and marry Anne. This produced a lot of religious tension all over Europe and many conflicts. Once again, he had a daughter named Elizabeth. At this moment, his decline began due to the impossibility of having a male heir. Anne Boleyn was accused of adultery, so she...

The Legal Basis for Humanitarian Intervention

States may resort to force within another nation's territory without government consent to protect individuals suffering from inhumane treatment when no other recourse exists. While international practice often links this exclusively to armed force, it should also encompass non-coercive measures.

A Just Cause for Human Rights

This intervention represents a struggle for a just cause, rooted in solidarity and the legal affirmation of a society based on respect for the individual. These actions aim to:

• Protect populations from massive violations of fundamental human rights.
• Ensure humanitarian assistance reaches victims when sovereign governments block access.

Criteria for Justified Intervention

For an intervention...