Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Economic Recovery in Scandinavian Nations

The economic recovery in Sweden and Denmark was notably faster than in other countries. The key element was assigning the state budget an active, anti-crisis role in combating the economic downturn. When private investment from entrepreneurs decreased, leading to unemployment, the state increased its own investment to compensate for this effect.

The implementation of these programs was decisively influenced by social democratic parties, which were already promoting measures to improve conditions for workers. These parties were instrumental in approving plans to aid the unemployed.

International and British Responses

Beginning in 1932, the governments of the United States, France, and Britain struggled to...

Association and Second International Impulse

The expansion of the labor movement involved a growth in the number of affiliated national unions and socialist parties. To counter this, business organizations appeared, provoking strikes, closing businesses, or creating company unions that obeyed employer instructions.

Restoration and Key Agreements

In this context of expanding trade unionism and socialism, the IWA congress was restored in Paris, coinciding with the Universal Exposition. During this event, it was agreed to campaign for the 8-hour working day and to organize demonstrations on May 1st. The congress was primarily organized in Brussels, where the most prominent members of European socialism were present.

Consolidation of the Organization

The...

The Regency of Maria Cristina (1885)

In 1885, Alfonso XII died, and the regency passed to his wife, Maria Cristina of Hapsburg. To ensure the stability of the regime during this long regency, Cánovas and Sagasta established the agreement known as the Pact of El Pardo. Cánovas pledged to support a government chaired by Sagasta.

The Liberal Government and Reforms

This Liberal government led to the longest stage of the Restoration and was characterized by the consolidation of the party and the liberal application of its program, notably by adopting the Law of Associations in 1887. For Sagasta, it was not easy to maintain the unity of such a heterogeneous party, and internal differences arose in 1890. In 1890, Cánovas and the Conservative Party...

The Second Spanish Republic

Chronology

• Progressive Biennium (1931–1933)
• Conservative Biennium (1933–1936)
• Triumph of the Popular Front (Feb–Jul 1936)

Introduction

The Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931, as a result of the political mismanagement of the monarchy, which was unable to address the serious problems the state had carried over from the discredited nineteenth century, and for having supported the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.

The Fall of the Monarchy

After the resignation of Primo de Rivera in 1930, the government of General Berenguer attempted to return to the situation of 1923 and restore the Constitution of 1876. However, the internal problems of the dynastic parties and social unrest favored the cohesion...

Evolution of Regional Autonomy

The political landscape was evolving toward autonomy. Internal dissension within the vessel of nationalism persisted, with the Carlist movement acting as a primary rival in the defense of identity, demanding the return of historical charters.

Galician Nationalism: A Cultural Awakening

Galician nationalism was primarily cultural in nature. While the Galician language was used mostly in rural areas, intellectuals and writers transformed it into a literary language. This movement, known as the Rexurdimento, was most influenced by the poet Rosalia de Castro.

A cultured minority began to blame the economic backwardness and political subordination of Galicia for the mass emigration of its people. While political in character,...

The Radical-Cedista Biennium and the Popular Front

In the general election of November 1933, the right-wing parties, specifically the CEDA and the Radical Party, emerged victorious. Parliament underwent a considerable change, characterized by a highly fragmented and polarized assembly. The first government of the Radical Party, headed by Alejandro Lerroux and under pressure from the CEDA, approved an amnesty law and reversed several reforms enacted during the previous biennium.

The administration soon faced a series of challenges: a rural general strike promoted by the FNTT (National Federation of Land Workers) and conflicts with the Generalitat of Catalonia and the Basque Country. Following the formation of a new radical government including...

As we have seen, the issue of duality of power initially arose between the protagonists of the ruling (military) and the Boards. Although the program of the Boards was more radical than that of the military, they agreed on some points: universal suffrage, freedom of the press, freedom of trade, and even some social demands. Republicans soon split over the issue of the regime.

Formation of the Provisional Government

In early October, the Provisional Government was formed, headed by Serrano, with Prim as second. This government succeeded in dissolving the Boards and began to implement part of the democratic revolutionary program:

• Fiscal reform (elimination of excise tax)
• Creation of the peseta
• New mining legislation
• Introduction of free trade
• Expulsion

The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)

Causes of the Military Coup

Primo de Rivera defended the coup as a solution to end the political crisis and social unrest facing the country. The primary reasons for the coup included:

• The instability and blocking of the parliamentary political system.
• The economic elite's fear of a social revolution.
• The increasing influence of republicanism and nationalism.
• The discontent of the army following the disaster of Annual.

Reorganization of the State

The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera transitioned through two distinct phases. Until 1925, the Military Board ruled; however, later dictatorial government figures included civilians, forming the Civil Directory.

The first military actions of the Board included:...

Introduction: The Crisis of 1898

The disaster of 1898 caused a general commotion in Spain. The regime entered a new phase marked by the ascent to the throne of Alfonso XIII in 1902 and ended in 1931 with the fall of the monarchy and the proclamation of the Second Republic.

The Reformist Dynastic System

1.1. Failure of the First Regenerationist Government

In 1899, the new Conservative leader, Francisco Silvela, called elections. Thus began a reformist policy that included projects for administrative decentralization. However, the increase of taxes on basic necessities and levies imposed to meet the debts incurred during the war in Cuba led to a boycott by contributors against tax collection. Although the Conservative government resisted in power,...

17th-Century Habsburg Spain

The main innovation in the political system of the Spanish monarchy was the valido (royal favorite). These favorites were members of the aristocracy in whom the king deposited his confidence. The king turned away from the work of government, and the validos made the major decisions.

Two reasons led to their appearance:

• The work of government was becoming increasingly complex.
• The Spanish monarchs of the seventeenth century, the Minor Austrians, were not noted for their industrious spirit.

The validos ruled outside the institutional system of the monarchy, regardless of the Councils. Instead, they created small boards composed of their own supporters.

This new system represented a significant increase in corruption. These...