Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The First World War and the Crisis of 1917

In 1913, King Alfonso XIII named the conservative Eduardo Dato as President. Dato had to address the outbreak of the First World War (1914–1918).

Spain and the First World War: Neutrality and Alignment

Spain maintained a position of neutrality in the European conflict. This stance was supported by all political forces except the radicals led by Lerroux. This neutrality is explained by the traditional isolation of Spanish foreign policy, which had kept the country outside of the major European alliance systems.

Spanish society, however, took sides, leading to much controversy between *pro-Allies* and *Germanophiles*. The political alignments were generally as follows:

• Upper Classes: Supported the Central

Adultery, Justice, and Athenian Law

Anyway, I was told in detail everything that happened. When he left, I replied, "Beware, lest you learn this at all. Or, is void anything we agreed? I ask that I show it all in flagrant [delict]; because I do not need words, but show me clear that the fact, if it is." She pledged. So it took four or five days after this conversation, as I will show overwhelming evidence.

But first I will relate what happened the last day. Sostratus is a relative and my friend. I found him after sunset, when coming from the field. Since I knew that if I arrived at that time I would not find any of his relatives at home, I invited him to dinner with me. We arrived at my house and went upstairs to dine. When he was fine, he retired,...

Franco's Dictatorship in Spain: 1939-1975

The Rise of Franco

From 1939 to 1975, Spain was a dictatorship led by General Francisco Franco. In the last year of the Civil War, Franco made a political restoration and managed the new regime. Franco was named Chief of the Army and held other positions. With this, many pretended to be doing a series of reforms to achieve an authoritarian dictatorship. At the end of the Civil War, a new stage began with a number of characteristics:

• Propaganda making it clear that Franco was only responsible for his actions.
• Fighting liberalism with the negation of party systems.
• A large repression as a leader sits politically.

Franco's Ideology and Policies

Franco imposed the political and ideological bases of his dictatorship....

The *Turno Pacífico*: Power Sharing in Restoration Spain

During the Spanish Restoration, the two major political parties, the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party, agreed to alternate in government based on election results. However, to ensure power was controlled, the electoral process was manipulated through rigging and fraud mechanisms. This system, known as the Turno Pacífico (Peaceful Turn), secured regular alternation in government between these two main parties of Spanish liberalism, primarily aiming for institutional stability and political guarantees.

The system essentially inverted the logic suitable for a parliamentary scheme. Instead of elections determining the government, the two parties agreed to take turns. When the ruling...

Republican Zone: Internal Strife

Catalonia's Dual Power Structure

From the outset of the Spanish Civil War, Catalonia experienced a unique political landscape with two distinct powers:

• The Government, chaired by Lluís Companys.
• The Central Committee of Anti-Fascist Militias, led by influential groups such as the POUM (Workers' Party of Marxist Unification), the CNT (National Confederation of Labour), and the FAI (Iberian Anarchist Federation).

Attempts by the Republican Government and the Communists to restore central authority and curb the power of the Anti-Fascist Militias culminated in a significant internal conflict.

The May 1937 Uprising in Barcelona

This struggle led directly to the May 1937 Uprising in Barcelona. During this clash, anarchists...

To save their lives, many Jews converted to Christianity but became hated by the common people, the aristocracy, and the Church.

The Spanish Inquisition & Religious Policy

Establishment of the Inquisition

In the early years of their reign, the Catholic Monarchs had a tolerant attitude towards the Jews. However, many converts reportedly returned to Judaism. This belief was the main inspiration behind the establishment of the Council of the Supreme and General Inquisition (Holy Office). It was a religious court that persecuted crimes against the Christian faith. The main Inquisitor was the convert Fray Tomás de Torquemada. His mission was to preserve the purity of the faith. The inquisitorial trial was called an Auto da Fé and was held in...

Legislative Work of the Cortes of Cadiz

The Cortes promulgated several decrees and laws to reform society and prepare the groundwork for a new regime. The most important measures included:

• Abolition of seigneurial rights
• Proclamation of freedom of the press
• Abolition of torture in interrogations
• Abolition of the Tribunal of the Inquisition
• Proclamation of the freedom of work
• Abolition of entail for estates with less than 3,000 ducats of annual income
• Alienation of property belonging to religious communities reformed or abolished by Joseph Bonaparte
• Fragmentation of individual land ownership, reserving a portion for distribution among combatants
• Suppression of evidence of nobility and purity of blood required for military colleges

Most of these measures...

1. Sports and Racial Division in Invictus

In the movie Invictus, the opening scenes depict people practicing different sports, reflecting the deep racial divisions prevalent during the apartheid era. Due to segregation policies, Black and white South Africans traditionally participated in separate athletic activities:

• Soccer: Primarily associated with the Black population.
• Rugby: Traditionally associated with the white population.

This distinction highlights the stark racial disparities in sports participation during that period.

2. Nelson Mandela's Release from Prison

Nelson Mandela was released from prison on February 11, 1990. This event marked a significant milestone in the dismantling of apartheid in South Africa. Having spent 27 years incarcerated,...

Russia's Revolutionary Landscape (Early 1900s)

From the beginning of the 20th century, there were three principal revolutionary parties in Russia:

• The Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs): Their main base of support was the peasantry. Influenced by anarchism, they frequently resorted to political terror.
• The Social Democrats: Following the classic doctrines of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, they believed that the development of capitalism would create a radicalized proletariat that would eventually stage a revolution and introduce socialism. They rejected political terror as futile.
• The Constitutional Democrats (Kadets): This party stood for representation in Parliament and the drafting and passing of a Constitution.

The Social Democratic Split

In 1902, Alphonse XIII (son of Maria Cristina) ascended to the throne and supported the most conservative sectors. The two dynastic parties, taking turns in government, divided due to changes in their leadership. Consequently, caciques (local political bosses) lost influence. In this context of political instability, the country faced several social problems, including:

• Increased social crises (landowners vs. workers)
• Protests against the Church (anticlericalism expanded)
• Criticism of the army
• Growth of the workers' movement (mainly in Catalonia and the Basque Country)
• The Moroccan problem

Furthermore, social and political opposition developed, albeit without immediate success. These opposition groups included:

• Carlists
• Republicans
• Workers' movements,