Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Anarchy: absence of government and absolute freedom of the individual, regarded as a political Ideal. Example: Free Territory, It existed from 1918 to 1921 in Russia and Ukraine.

Aristocracy: a form Of government in which power is held by the nobility. Example: no country has An aristocratic government.

Authoritarian: Avoring or enforcing strict obedience to authority, especially that of the Government, at the expense of personal freedom. Example: Argentina under Perón And Nasser in Egypt.

Communist: adhering To or based on the principles of communism. Example: Post-Soviet states: Armenia, Estonia.

Confederation: a more Or less permanent union of countries with some or most political power vested In a central authority. Example: Belgium, Canada....

1.1 Democracy in the United States

The United States was a democracy with a two-party political system.

Republican administrations governed the US as a result of the economic prosperity of the 1920s and due to the fear of Communism,...

And though Hitler, in the Hendaye interview (September 1940), rejected the Franco benefits, the foreign minister Serrano facilitated Nazi activities in Spain and the German export of strategic materials. In 1941, he was sent to the Russian front, called the Blue Division. Then, before the Allied victories, he took free retirement and returned to the policy of neutrality, but collaborated with Germany until the end of the war. At the end of this, the Allies decided to close the borders to isolate Spain. Spain was not admitted to the newly created United Nations, and in 1946, a resolution called for the withdrawal of ambassadors in Madrid, which reflects the text, and Spain was excluded from the Marshall Plan. The government responded with mass...

Reign of Elizabeth II (1833-1868)

In 1833, Ferdinand VII died, leaving the three-year-old Elizabeth II as heir and his wife, Maria Cristina, as regent. Supporting Isabel was instrumental in establishing liberalism in power. The First Carlist War and the Elizabethan era soon began.

Regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1840)

When Ferdinand VII died, his brother Carlos claimed his rights to the throne, rejecting the Pragmatic Sanction. This sparked the First Carlist War, which can be divided into three phases:

1. In the first two years, Carlist guerrillas operated in groups called "parties" until General Zumalacárregui formed a haphazard army.
2. Zumalacárregui died, and the conflict spread to Catalonia, Valencia, and Aragon. The Carlists attempted but failed

Quattrocento: The Dawn of the Renaissance in Florence

The Medici's Influence

The Quattrocento, a period of artistic and cultural revolution, had its epicenter in Florence. The powerful Medici family played a crucial role, patronizing various artists and fostering a climate of creativity. Quattrocento art subsequently spread to other Italian republics. This era was characterized by intense research and experimentation, laying the groundwork for the classicism of the Cinquecento.

Quattrocento Architecture

General Characteristics

Quattrocento architecture drew inspiration from Vitruvius's treatise, rediscovered in the monastery of Saint Gall. Key features include:

• Predominance of columns and pilasters as supports, replacing the Gothic pillar.
• Classical

The First International (IWA)

The First International: The International Workers' Association (IWA) was created in London by delegates from British and French workers' associations, as well as Italian and German political figures. A General Council, headed by Marx, wrote a statute outlining its basic principles. Early congresses of the IWA approved measures affecting the working class.

The Paris Commune

Commune of Paris: The International became involved with concerns and political and military tensions between France and Germany. Workers revolted against the war and the creation of a conservative government, but Paris refused to accept the new government and initiated a revolution. Consequently, the government relocated to Versailles. Elections...

1. Introduction

Marx had thought that his communist society would be in an industrialized country, but it was not. The communist revolution took place in a society which emerged from absolutism and was agricultural. In the early twentieth century, Tsar Nicholas II believed in the divine right of kings. The main feature was the Russian Tsar, who had the support of the nobility and the Orthodox Church, which was closely linked to power. The tsarist regime was based on three pillars: a large army, police policies that were not judged by the Tsar, and the religious Orthodox Church.

The Russian economy was based on agriculture and needed much foreign capital. Farmers, representing 60% of the population, lived almost bonded until 1860. Still, living...

The Renaissance in Spain

The Renaissance, a period of cultural revival, originated in Italy between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.

The Aragonese dominion in Naples facilitated contact between Italian and Spanish writers and thinkers, fostering a broader exchange of ideas from the mid-fifteenth century. However, the Renaissance truly took hold in Spain during the reigns of Charles I and Philip II.

Political, Social, and Economic Context

In Spain, the sixteenth century was marked by significant political stability, internal peace, and an abundance of gold and silver flowing from America.

Spain emerged as a world power, boasting vast territorial possessions across Europe, America, and even Asia. The second decade of the sixteenth century saw...

The French Revolution

The Gironde Convention

The Republic was in the hands of the Girondins, who called for universal male suffrage elections for the new National Convention. The Convention conducted a trial of King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, who were ultimately executed by guillotine. The king's death led to the formation of a coalition of European monarchies against revolutionary France.

In 1793, the Republic was in danger. Internally, counterrevolutionary riots erupted. Externally, allied armies invaded France.

The Jacobin Convention

In 1793, the Jacobins seized power and arrested the main Girondin political leaders. That same year, they promulgated a new constitution based on social democracy: popular sovereignty, universal suffrage,...

Background

The crisis of 1808 was a series of events that led to the exile of the Bourbon dynasty, the War of Independence, and the beginning of the Liberal Revolution in Spain. In 1795, Spain had opposed the French Revolution, culminating in the Peace of Basel. However, by 1805, Spain was involved in the Battle of Trafalgar and allied with Napoleon through the Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1807.

These events led to increased military spending and higher taxes. The loss of the trade monopoly with America after the Peace of Basel and crop failures further plunged Spain into an economic crisis. The King's private life, particularly the actions of Godoy and Queen Maria Luisa of Parma, became a public scandal, damaging the prestige of the monarchy....