Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Contenders

Initially, the primary participants were the countries of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. The Triple Alliance, initially comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, was eventually limited to the Central Powers, with the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joining. Italy, despite its initial alignment, ultimately joined the Allies. The Entente, also known as the Allies, included Serbia, Belgium, Romania, Italy, Greece, Portugal, Japan, and the United States. Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands, Albania, and the Nordic nations remained neutral.

Phases

War of Movement (1914)

The initial phase saw the failure of the Schlieffen Plan, a German strategy to advance through Belgium and encircle the French army. The Battle of the Marne...

Early Catalanism: Autonomy and Civil Law

The most conservative elements were better synchronized with the bourgeoisie. In 1888, a document titled "Message to the Queen Regent" was signed, calling for autonomy for Catalonia. There was also a campaign in defense of Catalan civil law, as the government in Madrid sought to reform the civil code, aiming for uniform laws across all regions. Through this campaign, Catalonia successfully retained its own civil law, which is considered the first victory for Catalanism.

Conservative Catalanism and its Foundations

When Spain transitioned from the Ancien Régime to the liberal state, the Church initially endorsed Carlism. However, with the establishment of the liberal state, the Church slowly abandoned this...

From Dictatorship to the Republic

After Primo de Rivera's resignation, King Alfonso XIII tasked General Dámaso Berenguer with forming a government. However, returning to the previous political regime proved impossible. The dynastic parties had lost prestige and organizational structure, the monarchy was unpopular, and the people identified the king as a dictator. Antimonarchic forces took the initiative, culminating in the Pact of San Sebastián on August 17, 1930.

Republicanism in Spain (1930-1931)

Spanish republicanism was characterized by fragmentation and political inefficiency. The Pact of San Sebastián forged a new alliance where Republicans joined forces with converted monarchists. The pact signatories agreed to suppress the monarchy,...

Bernini's Colonnade in St. Peter's Square

The Facade

Before discussing Bernini's colonnade, we should note the facade previously designed by Maderno. It features a colossal order of pilasters and semicolumns that embrace the two floors comprising it. They have an entablature and a superimposed attic on a low-rise structure. It is a low but elongated facade, designed so that the dome raised by Michelangelo would remain in sight.

The Colonnade

The colonnade supports an entablature surmounted by a balustrade and a grand decoration of statues. Each of the approximately 140 statues, all depicting saints, was made by Bernini himself and encircles the square.

A Masterpiece of Design

This square is a masterpiece not only for its artistic value but also because...

Vatican

1. Location: Vatican, Rome (IT)
2. Architect: Gian Lorenzo Bernini
3. Style: Baroque
4. Period: 1656-1667
5. Element: Lintel

Historical Context of the Baroque Period

This period is notable for the interplay between crisis and progress. Many problems occurred: social conflict, stagnation in the fields and industry, pestilence, and war. But on the other hand, it is the time when colonial empires emerged to alleviate these crises.

Cultural Context

The art center during the 17th century was in Rome. During this period, there was a scientific breakthrough in opera.

Religious Context

The principles of the Catholic Church were reaffirmed, strengthening the papacy and the Jesuits, created to curb the Counter-Reformation.

The Role of Baroque Art

The role of Baroque art...

Analysis of the Manifesto of the Persians

The Manifesto of the Persians is a socio-political document addressed to King Ferdinand VII, signed in Madrid in 1814. This document expresses the desires of the old nobility and clergy, demanding the restoration of the old regime and the abolition of the Constitution of 1812.

This collection of items highlights the fundamental principles that sought to defend the need for a return to absolute monarchy as a means of guaranteeing order and the proper functioning of the nation.

Context and Significance

The document refers to the anarchic situation that Spain had allegedly experienced during the previous six years. Article 134 presents absolute monarchy as the only way to ensure the correct use of "reason...

The Carlist Wars: Spain's Defining 19th-Century Conflicts

These wars explain much about the problems associated with state building in modern Spain. They were not simply dynastic struggles; there were also conflicts between the Carlists (supporters of the Old Regime) and the Isabelines (in favor of liberal constitutionalism). Moreover, they can also be considered a war between high-class citizens (urban populations) and poor peasants (rural segments).

The First Carlist War (1833-1840)

The end of Ferdinand VII's regency allowed Mª Cristina to ascend to the throne until Isabella II could reign the country. This was possible due to the elimination of the Salic Law, which did not allow women to inherit the throne, and the promulgation of the Pragmatic

Conflicts with France

The conflict with France stemmed from a personal rivalry between Charles V and Francis I, King of France. Both monarchs aimed to control the same territories, leading to numerous confrontations and alliances. The rivalry saw significant victories and defeats for both sides, with the Battle of Pavia (1525) standing out as a pivotal moment.

The Ottoman Threat

Another challenge faced by Charles V was the Ottoman Empire, ruled by the formidable Suleiman the Magnificent. Suleiman's vast and prosperous empire, stretching from Asia to Africa and Europe, posed a significant threat on multiple fronts.

In the Mediterranean and North Africa, constant naval clashes erupted between Charles V and Suleiman's forces, resulting in the loss...

Boxer Rebellion

The Boxer Rebellion was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising led by Chinese nationalists. It was quickly crushed, humiliating China. This was one of the first major anti-foreign rebellions.

Bolshevik Revolution

The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia was led by Vladimir Lenin. It established a communist government in the nation and led to the eventual removal of Russia from World War I.

Bentley and Child Labor

A worker in Britain, Bentley testified before a parliamentary committee investigating conditions among child laborers in the British textile industry. He described the poor conditions and low pay. This led to the formation of unions.

The Birth of a Nation

The Birth of a Nation was a silent film released in 1915. It depicted...

American, French, and Greek Revolutions

The American Revolution (1776), the French Revolution (1789), and the Greek Revolution (1821) occurred under different conditions. However, the circumstances for both the American and French revolutions were ideal for revolutionary change.

The Congress of Vienna

Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain participated in the Congress of Vienna. They:

• Returned frontiers to France
• Restored legitimate monarchs to every European country
• Established a balance of power
• Agreed to intervene in internal conflicts if a monarch was in danger

Italian Unification

At the Congress of Vienna, Italy was organized into seven states. A revolutionary group dedicated to the unification of Italy, the Risorgimento, was led by Mazzini....