Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

What are Civil Rights?

Civil rights are basic rights that every citizen has under the laws of the government. In the United States, the civil rights of each individual citizen are protected by the Constitution. Civil rights for every person means that regardless of gender, skin color, religion, nationality, age, disability, or religion, a person should not be discriminated against. Civil rights include the right to free speech, privacy, religion, assembly, a fair trial, and freedom of thought. Anyone who is considered a citizen of a country should be treated equally under the law.

Civil Rights Movements Throughout History

Throughout history, there have been different civil rights movements. Each movement fought for the rights of a given section...

Origins and Core Purpose

The League of Nations, established in 1920 after the devastation of World War I, marked a pivotal moment as the first international organization of its kind. Its primary purpose was to prevent another global conflict, fostering international peace and security through collective action.

Key Functions and Mandates

Beyond its overarching goal, the League undertook several critical functions:

• Mandates: Administering territories that previously belonged to the defeated powers, often as a “penalty” for their conquering. These territories were to be prepared for self-governance.
• Protection of Minorities: Safeguarding the rights and interests of ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities within member states.
• Functional Cooperation:

The Birth of the Basque Nationalist Party

This text gives birth to the Basque Nationalist Party. Sabino Arana wrote his political ideology in this text. His main ideas were that Bizkaia will be Catholic and Roman Apostolic, and Bizkaia will be an independent state. Although the state belongs to the church, he proposes the separation between state and church. The three provinces will be together in a federal and independent state as they share the same race, faith, personality, and customs.

Historical Context: Carlist Wars and Industrialization

The liberal army defeated the Carlists on February 28, 1876. This gave the chance to reduce Basque privileges and to assert the unity of the Spanish state. When the Carlist War ended, Bizkaia underwent a...

The First Biennium of the Spanish Republic (1931–1933)

The Spanish Republic is divided into two biennia. The first, spanning from 1931 to 1933, is characterized by its reformist nature and secularist agenda. Led by Manuel Azaña, who represented the center-left, the measures implemented during these two years continued the proposals established during the provisional government.

Secularism and the Religious Question

The government sought to diminish the power of the Catholic Church and reduce its influence over the population. Key measures included:

• Separation of church and state.
• Secularization of education.
• Dissolution of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).
• Legalization of free worship and divorce.
• State control of religious orders and nationalization

Key Concepts of the Pre-WWI Era and World War I

The Armed Peace (Paz Armada)

This was a tense international period characterized by "peace" because no major war had yet broken out, but it was "armed" because nations were actively preparing for conflict. Governments believed war was inevitable and sought protection by building alliances. States significantly increased their military expenditures and incorporated technological developments stemming from the Second Industrial Revolution (2RI).

Major Military Alliances Leading to WWI

The Triple Alliance (1882)

The Triple Alliance was a military agreement first signed in 1882, promoted by Otto von Bismarck, the German Prime Minister. It initially consisted of:

• Germany
• Austria-Hungary
• Italy

The alliance was...

Spanish Civil War: Uprising and Internationalization

The causes that led to the military uprising were varied:

Underlying Causes of the Conflict

• First, the deep-rooted problems and political conflicts that characterized the Second Spanish Republic, including religious, educational, social, military, agricultural, and territorial reforms. This period also saw the political radicalization of sectors with dictatorial tendencies and anti-republican workers' organizations advocating for social revolution.

Immediate Origins and Initial Outcome

• The immediate origins lay in the reaction of anti-republican sectors to the triumph of the Popular Front, who orchestrated a military and civilian coup plot. Also notable was the inability of the Popular Front governments

The Devastating Effects of the Spanish Civil War

Death, Destruction, and Famine

The war brought misery and death to thousands on both sides. Beyond combat casualties and victims of repression, the conflict caused widespread deaths due to severe food shortages. This situation was particularly grave in the Republican zone, as key agricultural areas were held by rebel forces. Essential staples like wheat and meat became scarce; bread supplies failed at an alarming rate, leading to the introduction of rationing in Madrid by March.

As the conflict progressed, the following issues became commonplace:

• Long queues at shops
• Rapidly rising prices
• The spread of black markets
• Widespread malnutrition and disease

Furthermore, industrial production plummeted due...

Dynastic Parties and Political Opposition

Reformism within Dynastic Politics

The governments led by Antonio Maura (Conservative) and José Canalejas (Liberal) marked a generation of politicians influenced by regeneralismo, who spearheaded major reform projects from within the existing system.

Maura's Government: Revolution from Above

The government headed by Maura designed the so-called "revolution from above," aiming to regenerate the system by forming a new political class supported by the "neutral mass." Key actions included:

• An electoral reform that, while failing to eliminate corruption, made electoral fraud more difficult.
• A boost to social policy with the creation of the National Insurance Institute.

Canalejas's Liberal Reforms

Integrated into...

The Constitution of 1837 and its Aftermath

A Progressive Start

The Constitution of 1837, described as progressive, emerged from a consensus among liberal groups, drawing inspiration from the 1812 Constitution while incorporating conservative elements. It recognized national sovereignty and the separation of powers, but maintained a strong executive branch, granting the Crown the power to veto legislation, dissolve the Cortes, and appoint and dismiss ministers. Legislative power was shared between the bicameral Cortes (Congress of Deputies and Senate) and the Crown.

The Constitution enshrined individual rights such as freedom of the press, opinion, and association. Notably, it avoided establishing a Catholic confessional state, though the state...

Prim's Provisional Government and the Search for a King (1869-1870)

In the absence of a king, General Francisco Serrano became regent and formed the first government, composed of liberals and some Democrats. For a year and a half, comprehensive legislation was passed to implement the new Constitution. Key legislative achievements included:

• The Electoral Act
• A new Penal Code
• The Law on Judicial Power
• Municipal and Provincial Law
• The Civil Marriage Act

In the economic sphere, Laureano Figuerola initiated a significant tax reform, eliminating irrational taxes and establishing a free trade tariff. This tariff involved a gradual reduction of customs rates over six years until their total disappearance, aiming to revive the economy. However, Figuerola faced...