Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Global Bipolarity and the Cold War

The post-World War II era saw the emergence of global bipolarity, primarily between two major blocs:

• The United States led the capitalist bloc, characterized by a free market economy, democratic governance, and extensive civil liberties.
• The Soviet Union led the socialist bloc, featuring an economy controlled by the state and significant limitations on human liberties.

Early Cold War Confrontations

The Civil War in Greece (1946) is often considered the first instance where the Cold War rivalry was overtly expressed.

The Marshall Plan

To aid European recovery and counter Soviet influence, the United States launched the European Reconstruction Plan, famously known as the Marshall Plan, named after George Catlett Marshall....

Political Opposition Within Francoist Spain

Opposition in the 1940s

Inside Spain, three main fronts emerged in the struggle against Franco's regime:

• The clandestine activity of small groups from the PCE, PSOE, and CNT was never interrupted, as evidenced by numerous arrests and executions. These groups increased their pressure on the regime during its period of international isolation, notably through strikes in Catalonia and the Basque Country.
• The monarchist groups engaged in conspiratorial activities. Some monarchist politicians and military figures drafted a joint letter to Franco, calling for the restoration of the monarchy under Don Juan de Borbón. Don Juan de Borbón himself issued a manifesto from Lausanne, urging Franco to step aside and

The Tragic Week and the Rif War (1909)

In 1909, Spain's involvement in North Africa, following the Conference of Algeciras, led to the establishment of a protectorate in Morocco. Franco was tasked with organizing the Rif region. Spain's objectives were threefold: to secure economic benefits, restore the prestige of the army, and solidify Spain's position as a colonial power. However, Rif attacks on Spanish troops resulted in a significant defeat at the Barranco del Lobo. The Spanish government responded by increasing the number of soldiers, many of whom were conscripted and ordered to depart from Barcelona. This sparked widespread public outrage.

The mobilization at the port of Barcelona led to the formation of a strike committee and the call...

The Rise of Nazi Germany

After his defeat in the 1932 elections, the NSDAP incited riots and street violence, leading to the collapse of a weak and unstable government. Paul von Hindenburg, the Head of State, was pressured to compromise with Hitler, who was appointed German chancellor on January 30, 1933. Once in office, Hitler ordered new elections amidst intense Nazi propaganda.

Shortly before the election, the Reichstag building was burned. Hitler blamed the Communists, claiming the fire was the start of a revolution, and sowed panic to increase voter turnout. The elections gave him control of parliament, which then passed a law establishing a dictatorship through democratic means.

Hitler established a government centered around himself, based...

The Government Crisis (1931-1933)

The crisis of the Republican-Socialist government was motivated by several circumstances:

Economic Downturn

This stage coincided with the worst of the global crisis that began in 1929 (the Great Depression). This exacerbated the traditional problems of the Spanish economy, arising from unemployment, low productivity, unequal distribution of land, and investments decreased due to mistrust regarding reforms. Furthermore, decreased public spending led to lower investment and lowered the subsidies provided, which was intended to alleviate the debt burden inherited from the former dictatorship.

Social Unrest

The reforms initiated by the Republic were too slow and caused discontent among workers. The left-wing parties...

The February Revolution of 1917: Fall of Tsarist Rule

In February 1917, popular groups took to the streets, demanding an end to World War I. This widespread unrest was followed by a general strike and a mutiny of the capital's garrison. Across the country, soviets (councils of workers' and soldiers' deputies) were formed.

Facing immense pressure and widespread rebellion, Tsar Nicholas II decided to abdicate. The Duma (Russian parliament) then established a Provisional Government, initially led by Prince Georgy Lvov. The new government promised political and social reforms and pledged to convene a Constituent Assembly. However, it controversially kept Russia in World War I. Living conditions did not improve, and the Soviets, increasingly controlled...

The Progressive Biennium (1931-1933): Extension of Reforms

The Reform of the Army

The Spanish army suffered from a serious situation of "macrocephaly." This prompted a reform aimed at creating a professional and democratic army, demanding loyalty to the Republic and its constitution. To end the "macrocephaly," withdrawal was offered to all commanders and officers who so desired. To make it more operational, half of the military regions were eliminated. To ensure these measures, the Military Academy in Zaragoza, led by General Francisco Franco Bahamonde, was closed. The reaction was immediate from much of the army, a move that was seen in the Sanjurjada.

The Religious Question

The Church was reluctant to accept the separation of church and state...

Immensity of an Empire and its Decline:

Russia's political regime was an autocracy, ruled by a Tsar with absolute power. There was no constitution or parliament to hold the Tsar accountable. The Tsar relied on the bureaucracy, a large army, and the Orthodox Church to maintain control. The economy was primarily agricultural, with a mix of communal and private land ownership. The living conditions of peasants were dire, with some regions still practicing slavery despite its official abolition. Agriculture was backward and unproductive, although capitalism had begun to penetrate certain areas. Industry was highly concentrated, with significant foreign investment. A new class of industrial workers emerged, mainly former peasants who faced low wages...

The Rise of Fascism in Interwar Europe

In the early 1920s, all European countries, with the exception of Soviet Russia, operated as representative parliamentary systems. This period of general enthusiasm suggested that democracy was firmly established. However, in the early 1920s, democracy suffered a severe setback, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe. During the 1930s, following the 1929 economic crisis, an authoritarian wave spread across the continent.

The rise of fascism in countries like Italy and Germany was driven by several preconditions: weak and unstable liberal governments, a mass of frustrated citizens, powerful left-wing proletarian movements, and nationalist resentment regarding the peace treaties that ended the First World...

The Crisis of 1917 in Catalonia

The crisis of 1917 involved three consecutive crises in the army, peripheral nationalism, and the working class during the summer of 1917. In June 1917, soldiers were upset by the promotion system that favored Africanists. They distrusted political parties and demanded a raise. This led to the creation of defense boards that put pressure on the government, which prohibited meetings and closed the Parliament, suspending constitutional guarantees.

In July, the National Assembly of Parliamentarians was created as a counterweight to the defensive boards. This initiative aimed to reopen the Catalan parliament and draft a constitution that considered autonomy. However, the entire Assembly was arrested after its second...