The Rise of Nazi Germany and Fascism in Europe
The Rise of Nazi Germany
After his defeat in the 1932 elections, the NSDAP incited riots and street violence, leading to the collapse of a weak and unstable government. Paul von Hindenburg, the Head of State, was pressured to compromise with Hitler, who was appointed German chancellor on January 30, 1933. Once in office, Hitler ordered new elections amidst intense Nazi propaganda.
Shortly before the election, the Reichstag building was burned. Hitler blamed the Communists, claiming the fire was the start of a revolution, and sowed panic to increase voter turnout. The elections gave him control of parliament, which then passed a law establishing a dictatorship through democratic means.
Hitler established a government centered around himself, based on the Führerprinzip (leader principle). According to this principle, the Führer was identified with the people and was the only one who knew and represented the national interest. This representation of the people was essential for the leader, with no process of consultation or delegation of power. The Führerprinzip, according to its ideologues, replaced an irresponsible and impotent parliament with a powerful leader who held all responsibility. Thus, the will of the Führer became law. This principle led to totalitarian control and repression, where any opposition to the Führer's will was considered unpatriotic.
Anti-Semitism in Nazi Ideology
Anti-Semitism was central to Nazi doctrine. The Aryan race was presented as the perfect symbol of purity in Germany, contrasted with the perceived perversion of the Jewish race, considered the enemy of mankind. Hitler presented the Jews as scapegoats for Germany's defeat in World War I. Nazi propaganda spread movies (like The Jew Süß and The Eternal Jew), pamphlets, and other publications that amplified latent anti-Semitism within the population. As the Nazis gained power, Jews were increasingly persecuted, culminating in the genocide known as the Holocaust or Shoah.
The Rise of Fascism in Italy
Among the discontented strata, influenced by nationalist propaganda following the peace treaty, emerged the myth of the "mutilated victory." Veterans organizations, particularly ex-Arditi (elite assault troops), fueled widespread frustration and resentment due to a lack of recognition for their sacrifices, courage, and contempt for danger during the war.
In this context, on March 23, 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the first fascio di combattimento (combat group) in Milan, adopting symbols previously associated with the Arditi, such as black shirts and a skull.
The new movement expressed a desire to "transform Italian life, by revolutionary means if necessary," defining itself as a party of order to gain the trust of more affluent and conservative segments of the population. They opposed any agitation and demand association, hoping that the combat Fascists would counter the riots promoted by socialists and Catholics.
Initially, the movement lacked a well-defined ideological base, and Mussolini himself had not committed to any particular ideological line, but simply opposed all others. According to his intention, fascism would represent a "third position."