Russian Revolutions of 1917: Fall of Tsarism and Rise of the USSR
The February Revolution of 1917: Fall of Tsarist Rule
In February 1917, popular groups took to the streets, demanding an end to World War I. This widespread unrest was followed by a general strike and a mutiny of the capital's garrison. Across the country, soviets (councils of workers' and soldiers' deputies) were formed.
Facing immense pressure and widespread rebellion, Tsar Nicholas II decided to abdicate. The Duma (Russian parliament) then established a Provisional Government, initially led by Prince Georgy Lvov. The new government promised political and social reforms and pledged to convene a Constituent Assembly. However, it controversially kept Russia in World War I. Living conditions did not improve, and the Soviets, increasingly controlled by committees of workers and soldiers, demanded immediate withdrawal from the war.
Duality of Power: March to October 1917
Lvov's Provisional Government, largely led by the liberal Kadet Party (KDT), was quickly overwhelmed by the dual power structure, sharing authority with the Petrograd Soviet. Upon returning from exile, Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, called for immediate withdrawal from the war, an end to Soviet support for the Provisional Government, and the transfer of "all power to the Soviets." He criticized the government's lack of real reform, and protests became more extensive.
Lvov was eventually replaced by a moderate socialist, Alexander Kerensky. Kerensky promised elections for a Constituent Assembly in November but faced growing opposition from the radicalized Soviets and began a systematic persecution of the Bolsheviks. In August, a military coup attempt by General Lavr Kornilov occurred. Surprisingly, Kerensky gained the support of the Soviets and the Bolsheviks, who dominated working-class neighborhoods, to suppress the coup. From that point, the Bolsheviks seized the political initiative. Their next crucial step was to gain majority support within the key Soviets in Moscow and Petrograd, with the Petrograd Soviet, in particular, coming under the leadership of Leon Trotsky.
The October Revolution of 1917: Bolshevik Power and USSR Formation
The Russian Civil War (1918-1922) and the international boycott of revolutionary Russia significantly influenced the political landscape. The Constituent Assembly, which emerged from the November 1917 elections, was dissolved by the Bolsheviks at its first meeting, as they lacked a majority. The Bolshevik Party was later renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).
Under the new system, the party was headed by a Secretary General, who often also held the position of head of state, making the party synonymous with the state. The supreme legislative body was the Congress of Soviets, while executive power was held by a Presidium. In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formally created, and its 1924 Constitution defined the powers of the Union and its constituent federal republics.
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
As a direct result of the Civil War and the harsh economic policies of "War Communism," the Soviet economy collapsed. This led to widespread peasant uprisings and the significant Kronstadt rebellion by sailors. In response, Lenin proposed a radical economic reform to improve living conditions, which he called the New Economic Policy (NEP).
The NEP represented a partial reversal of previous policies: while major industries, banking, and foreign trade remained under state control, it allowed for a mixed economy with small-scale private property, private trade, and a return to market mechanisms in agriculture. By 1926, the Soviet economy had recovered to pre-World War I levels. However, the allowance of private profits did lead to increased social differences and a new class of "NEPmen."