Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The League of Nations and Post-War Problems

The creation of the League of Nations aimed to normalize international relations and establish lasting peace. However, it faced significant tensions, and the period between 1924 and 1929 offered only a brief respite.

The League of Nations

The League of Nations was an international organization founded after World War I, largely due to the initiative of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. Its primary objectives were to ensure the maintenance of peace, collective security, disarmament, and economic cooperation. Its headquarters were in Geneva.

Governing Bodies

• General Assembly: Composed of all member states.
• Council: Included major powers such as the UK, France, Italy, and Japan.
• Secretariat: Handled administrative

Baroque Art: A Journey Through Masterpieces and History

Baroque art flourished in Europe as a reaction to the Renaissance, dominating the 17th and 18th centuries. This era was marked by historical challenges, including agricultural and industrial stagnation, demographic crises, and social unrest. Colonial empires rose in England, the Netherlands, and France, with England largely governed by an absolute monarchy, embodying the Old Regime. The reign of Louis XIV in France exemplifies this, with the 'Sun King' consolidating power. Italy remained politically fragmented.

Key Baroque Masterpieces

Colonnade of St. Peter's Square

Artist: Gian Lorenzo Bernini

Location: Vatican City, Rome (Italy)

Dates: 1656 to 1667

Details: The columns measure 15 meters. Baroque...

In the post-Cold War era, NATO and the European Union (EU) faced significant challenges. From its inception in 1918, Yugoslavia had been subject to strong centrifugal tendencies. World War II resistance leader Josip Broz Tito restored Yugoslav unity, largely due to the unifying force of communist ideology. This delicate balance teetered after his death in 1980 and completely collapsed after January 1990.

Breakup of Yugoslavia and Early Conflicts

• In December 1990, Serbs elected Slobodan Milošević, who subsequently seized national assets on behalf of Serbia.
• Slovenia declared independence in December 1990.
• As fighting erupted over disputed territories with mixed populations, the presidents of the six republics failed to revive a loose confederation.

The Consulate (1799–1804)

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte was named Consul, marking the beginning of the Consulate's rule. This was a period characterized by autocratic and authoritarian governance. Napoleon aspired to put an end to the political instability of the Revolution, consolidate certain revolutionary principles, and promote economic recovery through a government that represented the interests of the bourgeoisie.

Key Reforms and State Organization

• Political Control: The Constitution of 1800 severely limited liberties, and censorship was imposed to control public opinion.
• Administrative Structure: The state was organized into departments run by prefects who implemented government policies.
• Legal and Religious Changes:
  • A civil code for all citizens

Walt Whitman

• Born in New York into a laboring family of agriculturists (the working class.)
• His family has nine children and he was the second childegan working at the age of 12 as a printer in Brooklyn and New York City.
• Became a journalist and editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle in NY. He was later fired because he supported the antislavery Free Soil faction of the Democratic Party.
• Traveled via the Mississippi River to Louisiana and worked on the Crescent and later returned to NY.
• Saw many Shakespeare plays
• Back in NY he began experimenting with a new style of poetry
• Published his first edition of Leaves of Grass in 1855 with no publisher nor author name.
• The third edition of 1860 included Calamus and Premonition later called Started from Pumanok.

Primo de Rivera's 1923 Coup

The 1923 coup, led by General Miguel Primo de Rivera and Orbach, aimed to restore order to the Spanish political system. The coup was presented as a necessary intervention to save the nation from the perceived failures of the existing political structure. The justification was that the political system was corrupt and had led to a state of misery and immorality, stemming from the disaster of 1898 when Spain lost its colonies. This was further exacerbated by independence movements, terrorism, civil unrest, and political infighting. The existing political system, characterized by a 'dense network of lust,' was deemed incapable of addressing these issues, necessitating a radical change.

Goals of the Dictatorship

The primary...

The Crisis of 1640: Rebellions and Reforms

The reforms initiated by the Count-Duke of Olivares, favorite of Philip IV, sought to strengthen royal authority and achieve greater unity among the various kingdoms of the Spanish Monarchy. To this end, Olivares increased the tax burden and proposed the Union of Arms, which aimed to maintain a large army to consolidate Spanish hegemony in Europe. This policy mandated that all kingdoms of the monarchy (not just Castile, as previously) contribute men and money to the military effort. This provoked strong opposition, especially in the Crown of Aragon.

In 1640, discontent with the Count-Duke's policies erupted into two open rebellions: those of Catalonia and Portugal.

The Catalan Revolt (1640-1652)

The revolt...

The Franco Regime: 1939-1959

The Franco dictatorship, which began after the Civil War, had several characteristics: totalitarianism, inspired by the Italian fascist model; warlordism, with Franco as Caudillo of Spain, Head of State, Prime Minister, Generalissimo of all armies, and national party chief; a unitary and centralist conception of the state; the repression of opposition; and control of the media.

Pillars of the Regime

The main pillars of the Franco regime were the army, the single party (Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, or FET de las JONS), and the Catholic Church.

• The army was the most significant support of the regime and actively participated in power, as most ministers and provincial governors were military personnel.

The Four Stages of World War I

The war lasted four years, though initially anticipated to be short. It can be divided into four distinct phases:

Phase 1 (1914): War of Movement

This phase began with aggressive offensive tactics aimed at a swift resolution. Germany advanced through Belgium and Luxembourg towards Paris, intending to defeat France quickly before turning its attention to Russia. However, France held strong in Alsace and Lorraine, halting the German advance at the Battle of the Marne. Russia mobilized and launched a rapid offensive.

Phase 2 (1915-1916): Trench Warfare

The conflict devolved into static trench warfare, resulting in over two million casualties with minimal territorial gains. Demoralization spread among the entrenched...

The Nature of World War I in Europe

The conflict between Germany and France highlighted the obsolescence of traditional warfare. Mobilizing thousands of soldiers proved ineffective; the era of grand battles and decisive cavalry confrontations was over. World War I became a defensive war, characterized by trench warfare, where armies were locked in stalemate. Victory was elusive.

Technological advancements favored defensive positions, making major offensives nearly impossible. Gains of even 100 meters or 1 kilometer came at the cost of thousands of lives. The United States' entry into the war in 1917 marked a turning point. As a leading industrial power, its financial resources, vast reserves, and rapid mobilization of troops tipped the balance...