Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geology for Baccalaureate

Dalton's Atomic Theory

What are the postulates of Dalton's atomic theory?

1. Matter consists of discrete particles called atoms, which are tiny and indivisible and cannot be destroyed in any chemical process.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass, size and other physical and chemical properties.
3. In chemical reactions, atoms are neither created nor destroyed; they only change their distribution.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in fixed, whole-number ratios to form molecules of the same composition every time.

Rutherford's Atomic Model

Who proposed the first atomic model based on the planetary system?

Rutherford proposed that the atom has a small, dense, positively charged central nucleus that contains almost the

Language Functions

Language functions:

1. Emotional or Expressive Function: The message issuer emits references to their inner self, with factors related to the communication process and linguistic elements used in interjections and exclamatory sentences.
2. Referential or Representative Function: Focused on the context of communication, the topic or issue being referenced. Declarative or enunciative sentences are used, which can be affirmative or negative.
3. Conative Function: The receiver predominates over other factors in communication. Communication is centered on the person from whom an action or linguistic response is expected. Vocative, imperative, and interrogative sentences are used.
4. Phatic Function (Contact): Consists of starting, interrupting,

International Cooperation: Key Institutions and Economic Frameworks

UN agency forum to coordinate cooperation, negotiations, and policies that promote world development. Cooperation policy aims mainly at the objectives of the agencies, and some of them depend on the organization.

Main Bodies of the United Nations

The UN has the following organs:

• General Assembly: consisting of one representative from each of the 192 member states, meeting once a year for three months.
• Security Council: the executive organ, made up of 15 members, 5 of which are permanent and hold veto power.
• Secretariat: the administrative organ. The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the representative of the institution worldwide.

Specialized Agencies

FAO (Food and Agriculture

Energy resources. The property that we extract from nature for energy. Renewable Resources: These are those that regenerate naturally at a rate equal to or superior to their exploitation. However, a renewable resource can be renewed if it is not exploitation. Hydrogen (H2O), tidal energy nuclear fusion energy (the stars). Nonrenewable resource: Those who are regenerated at a pace so slow that we consider finite. These include fossil fuels and nuclear fuels. The nuclear fission is a non-renewable energy that will be used radiative minerals. We must distinguish between the energy needed to live endosomàtica energy exosomàtica that is used to maintain a certain lifestyle, the first type is the biomass.Water is a scarce resource essential for...

Metaphysics

Metaphysics: existence is not separately transcendent of the world. The world, the physics of sensible things, and nature are images or imitations of things. Entities such as ideas are not Platonic ideas. Plato's ideas are only apparent and phenomenal, and not real beings. On the contrary, things are real and really are what they are. The same things have in themselves, and not outside, the real principles immanent to their being.

The principles are matter and form. According to hylomorphism (hyle = matter, morphe = form), the theory establishes that every substance is a composite of matter and form, the real and immanent constitutive co-principles of bodies, whether natural or artificial. In this theory, the ideas of the celestial...

Engine Block Manufacturing

1. Engine block and cylinder liners: The engine block is generally made of cast iron or aluminum alloy with silicon. The molten metal is poured into the mold, and special care must be taken with the process to obtain a laminar graphite structure, which gives resistance and stability. Cylinder liners are made of resistant materials, and the block is generally cast with the same materials.

Types of Cylinders

2. Types of cylinders:

• Integral block: The cylinders are directly machined into the block, so care must be taken with the block without liner.
• Dry liner: The thin-walled cylinders are mounted into the block, fitted around the orifice of the block interference fit.
• Wet liner: The coolant comes into direct contact with

Plant Cell

Plant cells have centrioles but not centrosomes. They are organizers of microtubules and in organisms they take their first area near the nucleus at the start of mitosis. They use achromatic spindle fibers that align the chromosomes, and the first plate-forming fibers appear later in the cell. Plant cells have a rigid cell wall, so the plasma membrane is not pinched in a "strangulation" the way animal cells are.

Animal Cell

Animal cells have centrioles that act as spindle organizers at the end of cell duplication, and they disappear. The plasma membrane forms a cleavage furrow (the "equatorial groove") along which the cell is divided, forming two cells, each identical to the original.

Asexual Reproduction

In asexual reproduction, the...

Destructive Tests

Static Destructive Tests

Destructive tests (static) are used to evaluate the mechanical properties of materials. These tests are performed on samples of the material, and the results are used to determine the behavior of the material under load.

Hardness Tests

Hardness tests measure the resistance of a material to localized plastic deformation, such as indentation or scratching.

• Scratch hardness (Martens): Uses a diamond point to create a groove on the surface of the object. The depth of the groove is measured to determine the hardness of the material.
• Durability and static penetration (Brinell): A hardened steel or carbide ball is pressed into the surface of the material under a specified load. The diameter of the resulting indentation

Human Impact on the Environment

Air Pollution and Atmospheric Issues: Acid rain consists of sulfuric and nitric acids that fall with rainwater to the surface, causing changes in vegetation, water, soil, and buildings. The ozone layer thickness has decreased due to aerosols and refrigerants, which affects plants, animals, and humans by increasing skin cancer and cataracts. The greenhouse effect is caused by the emission of gases like methane and CO2 into the atmosphere; they let in sunlight but retain heat within the Earth, preventing it from escaping. The consequences include an increase in the temperature of the Earth and climate changes such as droughts and floods. A pollution hood and smog during winter anticyclones produce alterations in...

Understanding Deixis, Coherence, and Cohesion

Personal Deixis: I, we, you, he, him, them

Spatial Deixis: here, in, on, off, below, to there

Temporal Deixis: today, yesterday, tomorrow, then, at that time, before, after

Coherence

Coherence means the relationship should have logic among all text parts. The ideas developed reference the same theme and are related, concluding between them.

Progression of a Constant Theme

The theme is repeated throughout the paragraphs. It appears especially in descriptive, narrative, and expository texts.

Progression of Derivative Themes

Once an issue is stated (also called a hypertheme), the rest of the themes are aspects or parts of the first type. This progression is very common in expository texts.

Progression of Linked