Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geology for Baccalaureate

SYSTEMS

Can be small or large, living or non-living.

Types: open, close and isolated

• Open: exchanges both energy and matter
• Close: only exchange energy
• Isolated: Energy and matter is not exchange

Transfer: Basic flow through a system. Change in location of energy or matter.

Transformation: A new product is created. Change of state.

First law or thermodynamics: energy in an isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed.

Second law or thermodynamics: is lost in the different levels of a system.

Entropy: is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system.

Negative feedback:

Positive feedback:

PRODUCTIVITY

Is the conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time.

Biomass: is the living mass of an organism

Gross: total amount...

Abnormally Pressured Shallow Formations

Abnormally pressured shallow formations can result from upward fluid migration due to:

• Leaky fault
• Leaky cement or casing
• Improperly abandoned underground blowout

Steps Not Included in Well Drilling

Steps in well drilling do not include: building drilling equipment.

Drilling Rig Power System Selection

To select the power system of a drilling rig, one needs to consider the weight of the drill string.

Formation Fracture vs. Pore Pressure

Is formation fracture pressure always higher than formation pore pressure? Yes.

Causes Excluded from Abnormal Pore Pressure

Causes of abnormal pore pressure do not include: drilling.

When Not to Use Oil-Based Drilling Fluids

We would not use oil-based drilling fluids to increase safety,...

Fundamental Earth Systems

Biodiversity: The richness and variety of species within an ecosystem and the relative abundance of each species. It is categorized into three aspects: species variety, ecosystem diversity, and genetic diversity.

Geosphere: The rocky structure of the Earth system that supports all other terrestrial systems. Located in the uppermost part of the planet, it serves as the primary source of mineral and energy resources.

Natural Geological Hazards

Geological Hazard: Any condition or natural geological process, whether natural or human-induced, that generates economic or social harm to human communities. The prediction, prevention, and correction of these hazards must employ specific geological criteria.

Seismic and Volcanic Activity

• Volcano:

Item 3: Hydrology and Vegetation

Key Hydrological Terms

• River: A natural stream of water that flows into another river, a lake, or the sea.
• Full Flow: The amount of water flowing in one second past a point in the river.
• Drought: A period during which a stream reaches its lowest flow.
• Flooding: Time of maximum river flow.
• Torrente: An impetuous and violent stream, linked to heavy rains.
• Runoff: The relationship between the amount of rainfall and the amount of water that a river has.
• Fluvial Regime: The seasonal variation in the flow of a river.
• Catchment: Land whose waters pour into a main river and its tributaries.
• Slope Basin: A set of water catchments discharging to the same sea.
• Hydraulic Works: Buildings that are intended to regulate water resources

New Discoveries Shaping Our Understanding of the Cosmos

New discoveries.

The Immensity of the Universe

The Sun is a star in the Milky Way. Our galaxy is only one among the billions that make up the universe.

The Discovery of Deep Time

It was once believed that Earth was only about 6,000 years old.

Biological Evolution

It was once believed that each species had been created as we know it. Darwin's Origin of Species showed that species change over time.

New structure for the solar system.

Defining a Planet

A planet is a body orbiting a star, with a large mass and a spherical shape, that has cleared the area around its orbit. Its mass should be enough for its shape to be almost spherical, and it must have cleared its orbit.

That should explain a theory about...

Risk Assessment Fundamentals

The risk of an event (R) is calculated by multiplying the hazard (P) by the exposure (E) and vulnerability (V), expressed in per unit. The formula is: R = PEV.

Hazard

This is the probability of occurrence of a potentially damaging event in a specific region and at a determined point. Various factors influence hazard, such as the geographic distribution of the event, the surface area, or the return time. The different degrees of risk of an event in a given area are represented on maps called hazard maps.

Exposure

Exposure refers to the total number of people (social exposure), or the total amount of assets (economic exposure), or areas of high ecological value, which can be affected by an event. Similarly, maps are developed...

Earth's Interacting Systems

The Earth system is a complex network of interacting components. The four main components are the atmospheric, biological, geological, and hydrological systems. These four interdependent subsystems constantly interact. For example, pollution from the geological system can affect the atmosphere, which in turn can impact the biological system.

Two primary energy sources drive these interactions: solar energy (driving the active movement of materials in the atmosphere and hydrosphere) and internal energy (driving geological activity). Gravity plays a crucial role in the circulation of matter.

The biosphere is the most dynamic and complex subsystem, constantly evolving and adapting. Human activity significantly alters the...

Thematic Maps

• General Information: Identify the type of source (e.g., choropleth, isoline, flow map).
• Geographic Phenomenon: Describe the geographic phenomenon represented (e.g., relief, population density). Refer to the map title and legend.
• Area and Date: Specify the geographic area and date the map refers to.
• Originator: Identify the map's originator.
• Commentary: Provide a geographic definition of the phenomenon represented.
• Location and Distribution: Describe the characteristics of its location or distribution, differentiating between areas.
• Causes and Consequences: Discuss causes and consequences, compare with other countries, and consider expected future trends.

Topographic Maps

• Source Identification: Identify the type of source: basic cartography.

ITEM 9 - WATER RESOURCES

USES OF WATER

Domestic or urban: the average consumption of drinking water a person in urban and industrialized is 250 L / day and 91,200 L / year. The average consumption of water for domestic use is 126 L / person / day and 45.000L / year.

Industrial applications: these applications are industrial uses of water:

- Coolant (used as a fluid that absorbs heat through different mechanisms. Ex: boiler circuit.

- Cleaning agent (cleaning of facilities, machinery etc.)

- (Also used for motor vehicles or as feedstock for the production of detergents for example)

Agriculture: the biggest demands from irrigation water. There are 2 major types of irrigation:

- Irrigation by gravity (water moves by gravity. EX irrigation blanket...

Fossil Fuel Energy Resources

Coal: Origin, Classification, and Utilization

Origin and Formation of Coal

Coal originates from the transformation of plant remains under reducing conditions. These remains undergo a process of carbonization, which enriches them with carbon.

Carbonization Process

Carbonization is performed by the action of certain anaerobic bacteria that ferment organic matter, producing CO2 and methane. This process enriches the plant remains with carbon. These materials are then covered by new sediments, which increases the pressure and temperature, causing diagenesis and forming different types of coal. For coal formation to occur, specific conditions must be met:

• Originates in areas with significant vegetation development.
• Occurs when