Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geology for Baccalaureate

Advantages of Nuclear Fusion

Inexhaustible Fuel Supply

Nuclear fusion offers an inexhaustible supply of fuel.

No Radioactive Waste

This process produces no radioactive waste.

Safety

Nuclear fusion presents no risks of accidents, and the materials used cannot escape the reaction.

Classification of Radioactive Waste

By Half-Life

Waste is classified by its half-life, the time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. This results in short-lived and long-lived waste.

By Activity

Classification is also based on activity, the number of decays per time and mass. This leads to low and medium-level waste (less than 30 years) and high-level waste (more than 30 years).

By Toxicity

Waste is categorized by toxicity, depending on the type of reactions and...

Climate Change Impact in Asturias

A long-term global reduction in CO2 emissions by at least 50% in 2050 compared to 1990 is crucial.

Main Problems

Addressing the following challenges is essential:

• Reducing carbon emissions from developed countries.
• Promoting economic growth without harming the environment.
• Fostering cooperation to help developing countries.

Climate Change in Asturias: An Introduction

The Earth is interconnected, and changes in one area affect the whole. Climate change is worsening globally and is increasingly evident in Asturias. Adapting to these changes will require modifications to public works on the coast to address marine phenomena that exceed current artificial barriers, especially in eastern Asturias.

Effects of Climate Change

Warmer

Surface Winds and the Coriolis Effect

Surface winds associated with these areas do not follow straight trajectories but move in spirals. This manner of movement is due to the Coriolis force, which is the force exerted by the rotation of the Earth. The Earth rotates counter-clockwise. Due to the Coriolis force, any fluid displaced horizontally on the surface of the Earth tends to drift to its right in the Northern Hemisphere and to its left in the Southern Hemisphere.

General Atmospheric Circulation

The air in contact with the surface of the Earth in the equatorial region is warmer and lighter; this air rises while being gradually replaced by polar air, which is cold and dense. If the Earth were homogeneous and remained still, the draft would form...

Overview of Metals

Metals are fundamental engineering materials known for their unique characteristics:

• High electrical conductivity
• High thermal conductivity
• Considerable mechanical strength
• Plasticity
• High workability
• Recyclability

Key Material Behaviors

Fracture

Fracture is defined as the separation of a material into two or more pieces as a result of applied stress. There are two primary types:

• Ductile Fracture: Characterized by noticeable plastic deformation in the fracture zone.
• Brittle Fracture: Occurs when the material separates along a line with almost no plastic deformation.

Fatigue

Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It occurs in components like engine parts and bridges under cyclic loading, even below the...

Material Properties Explained

Thermal Properties

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is a parameter indicative of how a body behaves regarding heat transfer. It depends on:

• The nature of the material
• Its state (e.g., solid, liquid, gas)
• Composition
• Temperature

Magnetic Properties

Materials are classified based on their response to an applied magnetic field:

Diamagnetic Materials

These materials oppose an applied magnetic field, resulting in a weaker internal magnetic field. Examples include gold, silver, and copper.

Paramagnetic Materials

The magnetic field inside these materials is slightly stronger than the applied field. Examples include aluminum, magnesium, and platinum.

Ferromagnetic Materials

The internal magnetic field in these materials is significantly...

What is Soil? An Introduction to Pedology

Soil is the interface between the geosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. The study of soil is known as Pedology (Soil Science).

Soil Formation: The Three Stages

Soil formation is a complex process divided into three main stages:

Stage 1: Formation of the C Horizon

Rocks experience both chemical and physical weathering, leading to a more or less altered bedrock. This altered material is also known as the mantle of alteration or the C horizon.

Stage 2: Development of the A Horizon

This stage involves the establishment of a progressive living horizon, with contributions from:

• Pioneer settlers (lichens, mosses, etc.)
• Microorganisms and heterotrophic organisms
• Higher plants and animals

These organisms contribute to...

The Outer Layer of the Earth

The Earth is divided into three main layers:

• The Core: The innermost part, divided into the inner core and outer core.
• The Mantle: The layer surrounding the core. It is the thickest layer.
• The Crust: The outer layer of the Earth. It is very thin. Continents and the seabed are on the crust.

In the crust, we distinguish different forms of relief: mountains, valleys, depressions, and plains.

Tectonic plates are large blocks of land that form the Earth's crust.

• Contact zones between two plates are sites of high seismic activity and give rise to internal movements of the Earth: earthquakes and volcanoes.
• Ridges are underwater mountain ranges that separate two plates.

Agents of Volcanoes

• Crater: Opening at the end of the chimney

El Niño and La Niña Phenomena

Causes of El Niño

• Global warming, which reduces the thermal contrast between the two shores of the Pacific. This decreases the intensity of trade winds and ocean currents.
• Increased volcanic activity of oceanic ridges, which raises the temperature of the ocean.

When the trade wind subsides and does not blow westward, upwelling ceases. This leads to storms in the arid zones of Peru and Chile. The El Niño effect implies that fisheries production declines, and the global ocean temperature rises. Storms and rainfall increase in Peru, California, and East Africa, while droughts occur in Brazil and the Philippines.

La Niña

La Niña is characterized by an exaggeration of normal conditions. The trade winds blow harder,...

El Niño Phenomenon and Coastal Effects

El Niño phenomenon: The normal situation on the coast of Peru is that the trade winds push surface water westward, resulting in upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water and increased fertilization of the area. These winds are influenced by the anticyclone near Easter Island. The El Niño phenomenon, also known as the Southern Oscillation, occurs every 3 to 7 years and typically lasts about 18 months. It is often most intense around Christmas and corresponds to excessive warming of the surface waters along the eastern Pacific coast of Peru.

Hadley Cell: Tropical Vertical Circulation

Hadley cell: The Hadley cell is more energetic where the sun's rays strike vertically. There is an equatorial belt from which...

Fundamental Geological Processes

Glyptogenesis and Diagenesis

Glyptogenesis is the process by which weathering, erosion, transport, and sedimentation act upon rocks to give rise to sediments. Diagenesis refers to the processes of sediment compaction and cementation that cause the formation of sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphism and Magmatism

Metamorphism is the process where any type of rock is subjected to high pressure and/or temperature without changing its solid state. This modifies its structure into metamorphic rocks. Magmatism is the process by which magma originates and cools to form magmatic rocks.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from accumulated sediments through the process of diagenesis.

Non-Detrital Sedimentary