Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

Six million years ago, a warming period initiated the slow evolution of certain primates, leading to the first hominids. Lacking superior physical qualities, these early groups organized to hunt on the plains.

Physical and Cognitive Development

The initial evolutionary steps focused on achieving a straighter spine and freeing the hands. Maintaining an upright posture helped develop the brain. Hands were then used to create tools and control fire. The use of tools to soften food led to a reduction in the size of teeth and the chin. These changes collectively improved communication abilities, leading to the appearance of language.

Key Hominid Stages

• Australopithecus: Early bipedalism.
• Homo habilis: First tool use.
• Homo erectus: Achieved fully upright

European World in the Fifteenth Century

The world known to Europeans in the fifteenth century.

Early 15th century: Europeans knew mainly Europe and the territories surrounding the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. They also knew of India, China and Japan thanks to Marco Polo.

Causes of the Discoveries

Causes of the discoveries

Several political, economic and technological factors motivated exploration and the search for new routes.

• New trade routes: After 1453 the Turks conquered Constantinople and took possession of the Byzantine Empire; Europeans sought new routes to Asia and to the Asian lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean.
• Navigation and cartography: Improved maps, the magnetic compass, the astrolabe and the quadrant were used to measure angles

Unit 5: The Berlin Conference and Imperialism

Definition: The Berlin Conference (1884-1885)

The Berlin Conference, convened at the request of Otto von Bismarck, brought together colonial powers to formalize the "Scramble for Africa." The treaty established that possession of a coastline entitled a nation to occupy the corresponding interior. Following the signing, the occupation of the African continent accelerated rapidly.

Chronology

• Berlin Conference: 1884-1885

The Causes of Imperialism

The new colonial impulse was driven by several key factors:

• Political and Strategic: Colonies became a yardstick for national greatness. Strategic motivations included controlling trade routes, protecting territories, and preventing annexation by rival powers.
• Demographic:

Migration Affairs: Spanish Population Movements Abroad

The lack of resources and rapid growth of the Spanish population from the mid-nineteenth century led to significant emigration abroad. In 1853, Spanish legislation was successively passed to eliminate all obstacles hindering the exit of Spaniards.

Transoceanic Emigration

This movement went mainly to Latin America and secondarily to the USA, Canada, and Australia.

Phases of Transoceanic Migration

1. Mid-Nineteenth Century until the First World War

   This period saw the removal of obstacles to emigration, coupled with Latin American countries initiating policies to attract immigrants to settle and exploit their economic resources. Most migrants were of Atlantic origin: Galicians, Asturians, and Canarians.

Historical Evolution of the Byzantine Empire

The description of the Byzantine Empire originates from Byzantium, the city reconstructed by Emperor Constantine as Constantinople in the year 330 AD. After the division of the empire, the city became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. In the early sixth century, the territory of the Byzantine Empire consisted of the Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. During the reign of Justinian, the Byzantine Empire reached its zenith. By the seventh century, the Muslims conquered the richest provinces of the empire. In the mid-eleventh century, Byzantium entered a deep crisis, and the Normans drove the Byzantines from Italy.

Political Organization and the Basileus

From the seventh century, the...

Vocabulary

• Mercantilism: An economic theory arguing that foreign trade is the primary method to acquire precious metals, which were considered the vital force for national prosperity.
• Physiocracy: An economic theory stating that the fundamental source of a state's wealth is agriculture, rather than trade.
• Steam Engine: The first machine to use steam as a driving force, which allowed for the replacement of animal or natural forces in industrial activities.
• Rocaille: A decorative style that mimics stones and shells.

Science, Culture, and Art in the 18th Century

Adam Smith (1723-1790) developed the theory of economic liberalism, which defended the freedom to produce and trade to achieve national wealth. He criticized monopolies and guild limitations....

Understanding Democracy and Governance

Democracy originates from two Greek words: demos (people) and kratos (government). Essentially, democracy means government by the people. It is based on the principle that those who govern must be accountable to the citizens, who participate in the decision-making process.

The Separation of Powers

In democratic states, power is distributed to prevent any single person or group from controlling the entire state:

• Legislative Power: Held by Parliament.
• Executive Power: Held by the government.
• Judiciary Power: Held by judges.

The Rule of Law

The rule of law dictates that everyone, including those in positions of power, must respect the law. The Constitution serves as the supreme law, defining the rights and duties...

Characteristics of European Industrial Activity

European industrial activity is characterized by the following features:

• The population in the industrial sector decreases due to crises in many traditional sectors and the incorporation of technological innovations.
• The technological level and investment in research and development vary from region to region.
• The size of firms varies widely.

Traditional Sectors

European industry can be grouped according to their dynamism into three categories:

• Traditional industries such as steel, declining shipbuilding, and textiles.
• Dynamic sectors that have significant demand and a high level of technological development.
• Manufacturing of high technologies such as telematics, electronics, biotechnology, and aerospace

International Labor Division and the Capitalist World-Economy

During the second phase of the Industrial Revolution, significant technological advancements emerged due to improved design:

• Steam engine
• Transport
• Telegraph
• Oil
• Electricity and chemistry

Britain became the world's largest exporter of manufactured goods and capital, commanding maritime transport and the global market.

Changes in Factors of Production in Latin America

To meet growing external demand for raw materials, many changes were implemented in the production of goods:

Land

Governments across Latin America decided to occupy and sell unproductive lands or those belonging to the church or indigenous populations. To facilitate production, they proceeded to expropriate large territories, often...