Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

Production Factors

There are three main types of production factors:

• Natural Resources: These are all elements that nature provides for economic use (e.g., arable land).
• Labor: This refers to the physical and intellectual effort performed by human beings to obtain goods and services.
• Capital: These are goods already produced and accumulated, which serve to produce other goods. There are several types: financial capital, physical capital, human capital, and technological capital.

Global Energy Sources and Consumption

Energy is the fundamental basis for the realization of all human activities. There are great contrasts in the level of energy consumption, which are related to economic development and the living conditions of the population. The energy...

General Facts about Mexico

• Official Name: United Mexican States.
• Demonym: Mexican.
• Borders (Limits): Bounded by the United States to the North; the Pacific Ocean to the West; Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea to the Southeast; and the Gulf of Mexico to the East.
• Area (km²): 1,958,201.
• Capital: Mexico City (Distrito Federal).
• Population (1995): 91,145,000.
• Population Density (inhabitants/km²): 46.5.
• Languages: Castilian (Spanish, official), and numerous Amerindian languages.
• Currency: New Pesos (Exchange rate: $1 USD = 6.54 pesos, June 1995).

Religious Affiliation

• Roman Catholic: 89.7%
• Protestant (including Evangelical): 4.9%
• Jewish: 0.1%
• Other religions: 2.1%
• No affiliation/Non-religious: 3.2%

Demographic and Vital Statistics (1990–1995)

Ethnic Composition

European Hegemony and the Old Regime

Shifting Powers in Europe

European hegemony reflected the dominance of the Hispanic monarchy (territorial inheritance and colonial imperium) until the mid-seventeenth century. From the mid-seventeenth century onward, colonial France, Britain, and the Netherlands rose to prominence.

The Economy of the Old Regime

Agriculture: The Foundation

• Occupied 80% of the population.
• Focused on cereal cultivation using rudimentary techniques.
• Characterized by low yields and subsistence farming within señoríos (manorial estates).

Crafts and Manufacturing

• Textiles and metals: Produced in urban workshops controlled by guilds.
• Domestic System: Emerged in the seventeenth century to bypass guild restrictions.
• Royal Manufactories: Large

Origins of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was one of the two major transformations that marked the beginning of the contemporary Western world. It began in England in the mid-18th century (18). After the expansion of this movement all over Europe, it became known as the industrialization process. During the 19th century (19), the UK converted into the "workshop of the world."

Social and Political Context in the UK

Due to the changes in Europe and Japan, an industrial bourgeoisie emerged, which became the owner of enterprises, banks, or companies, and a new industrial class, also called the industrial proletariat, formed—that is to say, the workers. Regarding the industrial policy context, it was situated in the UK and consisted...

Prehistory

The prehistory period begins with the development of early hominids in Africa. The prehistory is traditionally divided into the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods, based on stone tool technology. The Paleolithic era starts with the appearance of humans, primarily located around the great lakes of Africa, which offered a favorable climate. Paleolithic communities were small, nomadic groups with basic social structures, practicing predation (hunting and fishing). They sought shelter in caves, where rock art originated. There are two main styles: Franco-Cantabrian (large, polychrome, static, and non-compositional) and Levantine-African (abstract, monochrome, dynamic, and small).

Rock art also included portable art, such as decorated tablets,...

Imperialism

By 1914, almost all of Africa was under European domain.

The Path to Imperialism

Between 1860 and 1914, many European countries engaged in a race to conquer territories. The result was the radical transformation of the world's political map, marking the entry into the era of imperialism.

Definition: Imperialism is the economic exploitation and political domination of almost all of Asia, Africa, and Oceania by Western countries.

The Causes of Imperialism

The causes of imperialism can be classified into two groups: economic and political.

Economic Causes

• The need for new markets for European products.
• The search for raw materials and cheap labor to extract minerals, petroleum, and agricultural products.

Political Causes

• Settlement: Overcrowding

Urban Growth and Land Use Patterns

Urbanization signifies an increase in the proportion of people residing in towns and cities. Historically, most people tended to work and live in rural areas. However, throughout the 20th century, people continued to migrate to urban areas, seeking better opportunities such as improved jobs, housing, schools, hospitals, and shopping facilities.

Urban Land Use Models

A model is a theoretical framework that doesn't physically exist but helps to explain reality.

• Burgess: Proposed that all towns and cities have a *Central Business District* (CBD) at their core. His model depicted concentric circles, with zones based on the age of houses and the wealth of their occupants.
• Hoyt: Proposed his *Sector Model* after observing

Urban Space Transformation

From the end of the twentieth century, global cities have transformed urban space. Global cities are privileged places where major banks, stock markets, and financial production centers are concentrated. They are the most advanced services at a global level. They control capital, information technology, and all needed products.

New York, London, and Tokyo are indisputable centers of the global economy, representing global cities.

Other Global Economic Centers

Other important centers include Hong Kong, Osaka, Frankfurt, Paris, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Amsterdam, and Milan. Less developed cities use similar functions, e.g., Mexico City.

Transformations in Large Cities

To accommodate growth, large cities have been transformed,...

Industrial Development in Spain

In the nineteenth century, industrial development was initiated in Spain, although it faced significant delays. It was not until the second half of the century that the country began to grow and establish a more robust industrial community.

Key Industrial Sectors

• Steel and Metallurgy: Foundational heavy industries.
• Shipbuilding: A historical pillar of Spanish manufacturing.
• Automotive Industry: Significant modern transformations.
• Food and Beverage: A vital sector for the national economy.
• High-Tech Industries: Emerging fields driving innovation.
• Traditional Sectors: Textiles, footwear, leather, paper, and graphic arts, which benefit from competitive labor costs.

The European Industrial Network

Spain's industrial landscape...

Socialist Systems and Central Planning

Socialism (central planning) emerged after the First World War in response to social problems. Rejecting the capitalist model, the state acts as the only economic agent. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the USSR. Recognizing the economic crisis, he implemented reforms such as Perestroika (economic opening) and Glasnost (political openness).

Mixed and Market Economies

Joint or Market Economies involve both the public and private sectors. In this model, the state is responsible for the basic welfare of society, which is expressed through public services and the facilitation of the common good (quality of life, education, health, labor, and the arts). However, difficulties exist, such as generated...