Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

Hominization Findings in the Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula is an area where we see the evolution from prehistoric hominids to modern humans. The excavations in the **Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos)** have discovered a set of human remains from the age of **1,200,000** years. It was a new species named *Homo Antecessor*, and it is considered an ancestor of *Homo sapiens*. These are the oldest remains found in Western Europe. Also in **Atapuerca (Sima de los Huesos)**, bones of *Homo heidelbergensis* (**350,000 years old**) were found. These two species belong to the **Lower Paleolithic**. Many remains of *Homo Neanderthalensis* are preserved from the **Middle Paleolithic**. The arrival in Europe of modern *Homo sapiens* (**Upper Paleolithic*...

The Industrial Revolution

The terms industrialization and Industrial Revolution refer to the emergence of a fundamental change in the traditional production system, transitioning from manufacturing to large-scale industry. This shift brought about a new way to produce goods in greater quantities, faster, and cheaper, resulting in a profound economic transformation with significant social and cultural implications. It surged in Great Britain in the cotton sector in the late eighteenth century and subsequently spread to Europe and then worldwide.

The key features of the new industrial production are:

• Machinery: The dominance of machines replacing human labor, initially improving spinning and weaving processes. This was initially perceived as a threat

The Nueva Planta Decrees and Bourbon Centralization

The following points outline the taxation and institutional changes imposed on the Principality of Catalonia:

• Taxation and Oversight: The court became a primary oversight body under military control. A Captain General, under the direct command of the King, replaced the figure of the Viceroy as the kingdoms of the monarchy were converted into provinces. The Permanent Deputation of the Catalan Courts was dissolved, and all traditional institutions of the Principality, such as the Viceroy and Councilmen, were abolished.
• Linguistic Shift: The Castilian language was established as the official language of the Court and all administrative documents.
• Economic Control: The management of economic issues

During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, while a unified state as a legal entity didn't exist, the monarchs ruled over a collection of territories with shared interests. They were aware of this commonality and, while retaining the traditional titles of their respective kingdoms, sought to create new institutions and homogenize existing ones. Key examples include the Inquisition, the establishment of permanent Ambassadors, and the strengthening of the Army.

Government Institutions

Several key government institutions emerged or were consolidated during this period:

Viceroyalties

Viceroyalties were established as representatives of the monarchs in realms where they were frequently absent. Viceroys held significant political, judicial, and military...

Regional Characteristics and Climate

It has rich minerals. The population adapts to the altitude and survives on beekeeping, American camelids, and agriculture.

South or Southern Andes

This region develops along the Argentine-Chilean border, from the mountains to Tres Cruces. Differences in appearance, climate, and biome exist:

Arid Andes (North)

• Located at the higher elevations of the Andes, featuring Aconcagua, Tupungato, and Mercedario volcanoes.
• High ranges are separated by deep valleys.
• Rivers originating here are exploited for hydroelectric power and irrigation energy.

Humid Andes (South)

• The ridge height decreases southward, allowing the entry of winds from the Pacific.
• These areas suffered the effects of glaciation, leaving traces in glaciers

Productive Factors

Productive factors are the essential inputs used in the production process:

• Natural Resources (Land): Nature provides a comprehensive set of resources classified as renewable (e.g., fisheries, sun) and non-renewable (e.g., coal, oil).
• Labor: Human activity, whether physical or intellectual, aimed at the production of goods or the provision of services in return for remuneration.
• Capital: A set of assets that contribute to economic activity by helping to produce other goods and services.

Types of Capital

• Physical or Real Capital: Tangible items used in production, such as buildings and machinery.
• Human Capital: Factors that raise the productive capacity of human beings, such as education and professional training.
• Financial Capital:

Population Movements and Migration

This was above all a period of significant migrations within Spain. So much so that there was a genuine redistribution of the population. People moved from the interior of Spain to large cities, especially Madrid and Barcelona, including Seville and Bilbao. Migrations in Catalonia were quite intense. In 1930, one out of every five residents was born outside Catalonia.

There were also external migrations, which began earlier in the late nineteenth century. The destination at that time was not Europe, but primarily Latin America, especially: Venezuela, Argentina, and Brazil. Many from Galicia went to Argentina, while Canarians particularly migrated to Venezuela. These transoceanic migrations to America were halted...

The Industrial Revolution: A Historical Transformation

The Industrial Revolution was a historical period between the second half of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. During this time, England first, and then the rest of continental Europe, underwent the largest set of socio-economic, technological, and cultural changes in the history of humanity since the Neolithic era. The economy based on manual labor was replaced by one dominated by industry and manufacturing.

Key Innovations and Economic Growth

The Revolution began with the mechanization of the textile industries and the development of iron processes. Trade expansion was aided by improved transportation routes and later by the birth of the railway. The most important technological...

Spain's Atlantic Region

Physical Characteristics

• Climate: Wet, cloudy, with frequent fog and much precipitation.
• Mountains and mountain ranges near the Cantabrian Sea.

Vegetation

• Ground vegetation covered with forests.
• Deciduous trees (beech).
• Many pastures.
• Heathland shrubs such as bracken and gorse.

Social Characteristics

• Cattle ranching: Semi-stabled cattle.
• Intensive agriculture: Smallholdings (minifundios), potatoes, and corn.

Demographics

• Diverse: Industrial cities with large populations, and villages with small populations.

Habitat

• Dispersed, with cottages or groups isolated in small villages.

Activities

• Fishing: 60% of Spain's total, including cod and whiting.
• Industry: Concentrated in the Basque Country and Cantabria.

Inland Spain

Physical Characteristics

• Climate:

Economic Development and Post-Industrial Society

European society is a post-industrial society. While industry was once the main economic activity on the continent, currently the service sector generates more jobs and wealth. A post-industrial society has evolved from an industry-based economy to one primarily based on services.

Composition of GDP at Market Prices in 2007

The following data illustrates the economic structure of Spain and Catalonia in 2007:

• Agriculture, Fisheries: Spain 2.6%, Catalonia 1.1%
• Industry and Energy: Spain 16.1%, Catalonia 20.0%
• Construction: Spain 11.0%, Catalonia 9.6%
• Services: Spain 59.9%, Catalonia 59.4%
• Net Imports of Products: Spain 10.4%, Catalonia 9.9%

The Economy of Catalonia: A Key EU Region

Catalonia is considered...