Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Chemistry for Baccalaureate

Nomenclatura de compuestos orgánicos

• CH₃–CH=CH–CH=CH₂ / penta-1,3-dieno
• CH₃–CH(OH)–CH₂–CN / 3-hidroxibutanonitrilo
• CH₃–CH=C(CH₃)–CH₂–CH₃ / 3-metilpent-2-eno
• CH₃CONH₂ / etanamida
• CH₂=CH–CH₂OH / prop-2-en-1-ol
• CH₃–C≡CH / propino
• CH₃CH₂CONH₂ / propanamida
• C₆H₅COOH / ácido benzoico
• CH₃–CH₂–CH₂–NH₂ / propanamina
• CH₃–O–CH₃ / dimetil éter
• C₆H₅–CH₂–CH₃ / etilbenceno
• C₆H₅–O–C₆H₅ / difenil éter
• CH₃–CH₂–O–CH₃ / metoxietano
• CH₃–CH(CH₃)–CH₂–CHO / 3-metilbutanal
• CH₃CH₂NH₂ / etanamina
• CH₂=CH–CH=CH–CH₃ / penta-1,3-dieno
• HOCH₂COOH / ácido hidroxietanoico
• CH₃CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃ / 2-metilbutano
• Mg(NO₃)₂ / nitrato de magnesio
• C₆H₄Cl₂

Understanding Uranium and Nuclear Fuel

Natural uranium is composed of three isotopes: Uranium-238 (U-238), Uranium-235 (U-235), and Uranium-234 (U-234). While U-238 is fertile and can be converted to fissile material, U-235 is the primary fissionable isotope used for power generation. Natural uranium ore cannot be used directly as nuclear fuel because the concentration of U-235 is too low. Therefore, uranium needs to be enriched to achieve a U-235 concentration of more than 3%. To produce one kilogram of enriched uranium, approximately eight kilograms of natural uranium must be purified and refined.

How Nuclear Power Plants Operate

Nuclear power plants utilize uranium as their primary energy source, harnessing nuclear fission to generate electricity....

Chemical Bonding and Atomic Configurations

How the elements reach a noble gas configuration gives rise to three types of chemical bonds between atoms: ionic, covalent, and metallic.

• Chemical bonds: All the forces that hold together atoms when they form molecules or crystals, as well as the forces that hold together the molecules when present in a liquid or solid.
• Octet rule (Gilbert N. Lewis): Atoms are bonded with each other to achieve eight electrons in their valence level.

The Nature of Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonds form when atoms combine to reach the noble gas configuration. Atoms lose electrons to reach the noble gas configuration or gain electrons to reach it. One electronegative atom will tend to gain electrons and form a negative ion (anion)...

Chemical Formulas and Compound Names

Chemical Nomenclature Rules

Valencia: Ag (1), Zn, Cd (2), Al (3), Cu, Hg-mercur (1,2), Au (1,3), Fe, Co, Ni, Cr, Mn (2,3), Sn, Pb, Pt (2,4), F (1), Cl, Br, I (1,3,5,7), S, Se, Te (2,4,6), N, P, As, Sb (3,5), C, Si (4).

Salts: Cr (6), Mn (3,4,6,7).

Oxides

Oxides: Metal + O (metal oxides); Non-metal + O (anhydrides); Peroxides: +1 O₂.

Hydrides

Hydrides: Metallic hydrides (metal + H); Non-metallic hydrides (F, Cl, Br, I, S, Se, Te): HF, fluoride, dH, hydrofluoric acid (aqueous solution); dH-sulfide H₂S, hydrosulfuric acid.

Volatile hydrides (C, N, P, As, Sb): NH₃ ammonia; PH₃ phosphine; AsH₃ arsine; SbH₃ stibine; SiH₄ silane; N₂H₄ hydrazine; BH₃ borane; CH₄ methane.

Binary Salts

Binary salts (F, Cl, Br, I, S, Se, Te): AlCl₃ aluminum chloride; CuBr₂ copper...

Chemicals

Evaporation

Evaporation is a physical process involving a state change from liquid to gas, in which substances can be separated based on their boiling points.

For the transition of a liquid to a gaseous state from liquid surfaces or from the ground, see: Evaporation (hydrology).

Redox

Oxidation-reduction reactions (also known as redox reactions) are electron transfer reactions. This transfer occurs between a set of chemical elements: an oxidant and a reductant (a reduced form and an oxidized form, respectively).

For a redox reaction to occur, the system must contain an element that yields electrons and another that accepts them:

• The oxidizing agent is a chemical element that tends to capture these electrons, resulting in a lower oxidation

Propietats i funcions de l'aigua

Aigua: Dissolvent universal, present en abundància a la Terra i a la matèria viva. Els efectes de les molècules poden ser directes (exògens) o indirectes (endògens).

Característiques: Àtoms de l'hidrogen (H) i oxigen (O) units per enllaços covalents simples. És una molècula elèctricament neutra, però amb distribució desigual de càrregues, cosa que la converteix en una molècula polar capaç d'establir ponts d'hidrogen intermoleculars.

Propietats

• Elevada cohesió molecular: és pràcticament incompressible i manté un volum definit.
• Surfactants i tensió superficial: l'adhesió i la cohesió permeten que l'aigua pugi per tubs estrets contra la gravetat (capil·laritat).
• Calor latent: absorbeix calor en

Electron Spin and Orbitals

Spin refers to the movement of an electron around the nucleus and on its own axis. There are two possible spin directions: +1/2 and -1/2. When two electrons have opposite directions of rotation, they are represented with small arrows, one pointing up and the other down.

An orbital is occupied when it contains two electrons. An orbital with a single unpaired electron is represented by a single arrow. Orbitals are represented as rectangles called quantum boxes, within which the electrons are indicated.

The electronic configuration of an atom describes how the electrons are arranged within the atom.

Hund's Rule

Hund's rule states that an electron cannot completely fill an orbital until all orbitals within that sublevel contain...

Atomic Structure and Quantum Theory

• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with identical chemical properties but different atomic masses.
• Planck's Quantum Theory: Energy emitted by a body through radiation of a specific frequency is a multiple of a basic energy quantity called a quantum (E = h · v).
• Particle Theory: Light consists of particles (photons) with energy defined by E = h · v.
• Bohr Model: Electrons occupy specific energy levels surrounding the nucleus, defined by the principal quantum number. When an atom absorbs or emits energy, it does so in discrete amounts equal to h · v.
• Quantum-Mechanical Model: Electrons exhibit both wave and particle properties. It is impossible to accurately determine the precise position of an electron within

Fundamental Laws of Chemistry

Magnitude: It is any quality that characterizes bodies or phenomena that can be measured and expressed through numbers.

Law of Conservation of Mass: In any chemical reaction that takes place in an enclosed space, the total mass of substances present there is conserved. The mass of the reactants is the same as the mass of the products.

Proust's Law: When combining two or more chemical elements to give a particular compound, they always do so in a fixed proportion, whatever its physical state.

Dalton's Law: If two elements can be combined to form more than one compound, a fixed amount of one of them is combined with variable amounts of the other elements, so that the related quantities are simple numbers.

Dalton's Atomic