Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for University

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing

Antimicrobial drugs are derived from microorganisms capable of killing or inhibiting the growth of other microorganisms.

Selecting Antibiotics

It is necessary to maintain a routine panel of antibiotics, supplemented by additional agents when dealing with highly resistant bacterial strains. It is recommended to prioritize antibiotics with a narrower spectrum and lower potency, reserving broad-spectrum, high-potency agents for cases of significant bacterial resistance where treatment options are limited.

Antibiotic Susceptibility Techniques

• Agar diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer method)
• Broth dilution method
• Microdilution method

Kirby-Bauer Agar Diffusion Technique

This method involves inoculating a standardized amount

Hormonal Changes During the Ovarian Cycle

The levels of LH, FSH, estrogen, and progesterone fluctuate significantly throughout the ovarian cycle:

• FSH stimulates follicular maturation, peaking near ovulation on the 14th day, after which it remains at low concentrations.
• The LH surge, beginning around the 9th day, promotes endometrial proliferation and the release of testosterone, which is converted into estradiol via aromatase.
• Peaks in FSH and LH trigger follicular rupture and the formation of the corpus luteum.
• The corpus luteum produces progesterone and estrogen.
• Progesterone transforms the proliferative endometrium into a secretory state, preparing it for nidation.
• If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degrades, leading to a drop in

Conceptual Content: Plant Structure and Classification

• Definition and types of plants according to the stem structure: tree, shrub, herb, or liana.
• Types of plants: flowering plants (Phanerogams) and cryptogams.
• Parts of the plant (Root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit), including the types and features of each of these parts.
• Morphology of the flower: style, stigma, ovary, ovules, stamens, petals, corolla, sepals, calyx, and flower stalk.
• Criteria used to describe leaves.
• Definition of Inflorescence.

Procedural Content: Developing Botanical Skills

A) Research Skills

• Observation and description of a plant.
• Registration of measurements.
• Connecting parts of a flower with arrows (labeling exercise).
• Identification of the plant using a simple identification key.

Digestive System Vocabulary

1. Bile – a digestive fluid that helps digest fats
2. Appendix – a small organ attached to the large intestine
3. Celiac disease – an autoimmune disease caused by gluten
4. Defecation – feces / the process of passing stool
5. Weight gain – putting on weight / an increase in body weight
6. Palpate – to examine by touch
7. Stool – solid waste eliminated from the body
8. Bowel – the intestines (small or large)

Digestive Functions and Pathologies

• The pancreas produces and contains digestive enzymes.
• Peptic ulcers may affect the lining of the stomach.
• The last part of the digestive tract is in the large intestine/colon.
• Bile is produced by the liver and released into the duodenum.
• Adverse reaction – reakcja niepożądana
• Autoimmune disorder

1. Brain Abscess

• Gross Morphology

  Localized area of liquefactive necrosis filled with yellow pus, surrounded by a thin fibrous capsule and edematous, inflamed brain tissue.

• Pathology

  Caused by hematogenous spread of bacterial infection, direct trauma, or contiguous spread (e.g., from sinuses). Represents focal suppurative inflammation of the brain.

2. Neurinoma (Schwannoma)

• Gross Morphology

  Well-circumscribed, encapsulated globoid mass with a soft, tan “fish-flesh” appearance, often with cysts or hemorrhage. Cut surface may show yellow patches.

• Pathology

  A benign tumor of Schwann cells, often seen in cranial nerves (especially CN VIII) and associated with neurofibromatosis type 2. Grows slowly and may compress adjacent structures.

3. Fibrinous

The Ubiquitin Proteasome System and Protein Degradation

Ubiquitin (Ub) serves as a critical marker for protein breakdown. Before a protein is degraded, it undergoes a process called ubiquitination, where multiple ubiquitin molecules are covalently attached to the target protein. Specifically, the glycine on the carboxyl terminus of the ubiquitin attaches to a lysine residue on the target protein. This ubiquitination process involves three enzymes and occurs in three distinct steps.

Experimental Detection of Ubiquitin

To experimentally determine the presence of ubiquitin or its conjugates, researchers typically use:

• SDS-PAGE: Denatured proteins are placed in an SDS-PAGE gel to observe their molecular weights and shifts.
• Western Blot: Specific antibodies

1. Fungi obtain nutrients through absorption.
2. The body of most fungi consists of threadlike hyphae, which form a network called a mycelium.
3. Some fungal species live in plants and can kill herbivores that feed on the plant. What type of relationship does this fungus have with its host? Mutualistic
4. What sexual processes in fungi generate genetic variation? Karyogamy and meiosis
5. Almost all of the members of this phylum form arbuscular mycorrhizae in a mutualistic partnership with plants. Glomeromycota
6. From the human perspective, which of the following kinds of fungi would be considered the least useful or beneficial? Rusts
7. Which of the following best describes the physical relationship of the partners involved in lichens? Photosynthetic cells are

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a molecule that contains the instructions an organism needs to develop, live, and reproduce. These instructions are found inside every cell and are passed down from parents to their children.

Structure of DNA

DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group, and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). The order of these bases is what determines DNA's instructions, or genetic code. Human DNA has around 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people, according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).

Similar to the way the order of letters in...

Early Chordates and the Rise of Tetrapods

The earliest known chordate, Myllokunmingia, is found in the Chengjiang fauna. One of the major challenges for early tetrapods was supporting their bodies on land, along with reproductive and sensory adaptations. Tetrapod limbs consist of three segments: the stylopod (humerus/femur), zeugopod (ulna/radius, tibia/fibula), and autopod (wrist/fingers, ankle/toes). Tiktaalik represents a key transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods.

Amphibians and Amniotes

Amphibians, with over 4,000 living species, represent a halfway point in the transition to land. They still rely on water for breeding and maintaining water balance. Amniotes, including reptiles, birds, and mammals, evolved a semipermeable shell made...

The Human Digestive System: Anatomy and Structure

The Digestive System is a set of organs that form a long tube, known as the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), connected to several exocrine glands. The GI tract is structured sequentially from top to bottom:

• Mouth (Oral Cavity)
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small Intestine (Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum)
• Large Intestine (Cecum with appendix, Ascending colon, Transverse colon, Descending colon, Sigmoid colon, Rectum, Anal canal, and Anus)

The entire digestive tract is located primarily in the abdominal and pelvic regions, except for the lower rectum. It is lined externally by a serous membrane called the peritoneum.

Components of the Gastrointestinal Tract

Oral Cavity (Mouth)

• The mouth contains two dental arches