Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Secondary education

Understanding Rock Formation

How Igneous Rocks Form

All igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidifying of magma. Magma characteristics include its chemical composition, temperature, and density. Crystallization occurs as magma cools and solidifies. This process is called crystallization because the various materials within the magma form crystals. The location where magma solidifies on the Earth's crust influences the type of rock formed.

Igneous rock types:

• Extrusive
• Intrusive
• Plutonic
• Filonian

Sedimentary Rock Formation

Sedimentary rocks form through compaction and cementation.

Sedimentary rock types:

• Detritic
• Rocks formed from precipitation
• Organic rocks

The Dynamic Rock Cycle

The rock cycle is the set of processes and transformations continually...

Nutrients and Water

Nutrients: Nutrients are chemical compounds contained in different foods and are essential components for our bodies.

Water

Water: Water is essential for life; it is part of all living things in varying proportions.

Features of Water

Features: It is where most of the chemical reactions of a living organism occur. It is a solvent for ions, minerals and organic chemicals; it acts as a temperature regulator. It is the vehicle for transport of substances in the body.

Carbohydrates (Sugars and Saccharides)

Carbohydrates: Available: they are a source of energy for the body.

Types of Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides: Glucose and fructose, abundant in many fruits.
• Disaccharides: Lactose (present in milk) and sucrose (table sugar).
• Polysaccharides:

Biological Nutrition and Energy Exchange

Nutrition: The set of processes by which bodies incorporate matter and energy from the medium surrounding them, using them to renovate structures and perform vital functions.

• Chlorophyll: Plants can carry out this process because they have a special substance capable of capturing sunlight energy.
• Chloroplasts: These are cellular organelles present in the leaves and green stems.
• Herbivores: Organisms that eat other living things, specifically plants.
• Carnivores: Also called predators, these feed on other living beings.
• Commensals: These are organisms that eat other living things without causing harm or providing benefits, such as some small crustaceans.
• Parasites: These live off other living things, causing

Fundamentals of Biological Processes

Nutrition and Metabolism

Heterotrophic Nutrition

Organisms that obtain organic matter from other living beings through food.

Aerobic Respiration

The process of breaking down the glucose molecule using oxygen.

Fermentation

A process of molecular decomposition that occurs without oxygen (anaerobic process).

Glycogen

A molecule present in animal cells used for energy reserves.

Classification of Heterotrophs

Heterotrophs are classified based on their primary food source:

• Herbivores: Organisms that feed exclusively on plants.
• Carnivores: Organisms that feed on other animals.
• Omnivores: Organisms that feed on both plants and other animals.
• Suspensivores: Organisms that feed on microorganisms and organic matter obtained by filtering

The Energy and Matter in Ecosystems

In ecosystems, matter and energy are transferred from one entity to others through trophic relationships.

Power Flow (Energy Flow)

The energy flow is a unidirectional process. Ecosystems depend on a continuous supply of energy for their functioning. The energy enters an ecosystem primarily from the sun. Producers utilize a part of the energy reaching the Earth for photosynthesis. In this process, light energy is transformed into chemical energy, which accumulates in organic matter and is transferred to other entities through the trophic levels.

Cycle of Matter

The cycle of matter is a closed, cyclic process. Matter cycles between living things and the atmosphere, water, and Earth's crust. Matter within the ecosystem...

1. Niveles de organización: cada uno de los grados de complejidad diferentes en que se organiza la materia.

Tipos: nivel subatómico, atómico, molecular (inorgánico, orgánico), celular, tisular, de órgano, de sistema, de aparato y de organismo.

Tejido

Conjunto de células del mismo tipo, estructura y función, que tienen una gran similitud entre sí.

Tipos:

• Epitelial: formado por células muy juntas.
• Conectivo: pocas células especializadas.
• Muscular: formado por fibras musculares.
• Nervioso: detecta variaciones del medio externo e interno.

Órganos

Formados por diversos tejidos.

Tipos: piel, intestino delgado, hígado, pulmones, arterias, corazón, cerebro, riñones.

Sistemas

Muscular, esquelético, nervioso, endocrino.

Aparatos

Digestivo, respiratorio,...

Plant Hormones and Their Functions

Auxins and Indoleacetic Acid

Auxins are chemical hormones produced in the stems and apical meristems. Roots produce a substance called indoleacetic acid (IAA). Their primary function is to provide the foundation for plant cell division and the stimulation of root growth. They are also responsible for various tropisms.

Gibberellins and Seed Germination

Gibberellins promote stem growth and the induction of seed germination.

Cytokinins and Abscisic Acid

Cytokinins are plant hormones produced in the root apical meristem, as well as in fruits and embryonic cells. They are often composed of zeatin. Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone synthesized in tissues; it is a potent plant growth inhibitor involved in the regulation...

Neodarwinism

This theory, born in 1947, defines evolution based on six core principles:

1. Refusal of Lamarckism

   It does not accept the theory of acquired characteristics.

2. Variability: Mutation and Recombination

   Individuals with asexual reproduction have mutation as the only source of variability. Individuals in sexual reproduction involve the process of genetic recombination.

3. Natural Selection Acts on Genetic Variability

   The individual is the bearer of different alleles, and natural selection acts on these varieties.

4. Evolution Occurs in the Population, Not Individuals

   A population is defined as a group of individuals of the same species that share an area and can crossbreed to produce fertile offspring. Populations survive, change, and evolve, while individuals

Characteristics of the Human Circulatory System

• It is closed: The blood flows within blood vessels. When a blood vessel breaks, bleeding occurs.
• It is double: There are two circuits: the systemic circuit (general) that travels around the body and the pulmonary circuit (smaller) that targets the lungs.
• It is complete: There is no mixing of oxygen-rich blood with oxygen-poor blood in the heart.

Lymph and Interstitial Fluid

Lymph: This consists of plasma and lymphocytes. The liver forms urea from uric acid. Interstitial fluid is the plasma medium located in the spaces between cells.

Functions of Blood

The blood carries nutrients and oxygen to the cells and collects waste products formed in cell metabolism, such as urea, uric acid, and CO2. It also handles...

Hybridization (general technique for detecting a specific gene, allowing a labeled probe with the complementary sequence to bind to the target molecule)

Recombination of DNA (the technology to transplant genes from one species to the genome of another)

Abiogenesis (study of how new biological life would arise from inorganic matter through natural processes)

Lamarck:

His theory considered that species proceeded one from another through transformation.

Causes of transformation:

1. Species are constantly making an effort to adapt to their environment, which leads to the transformation of their organs.
2. New acquired characteristics are hereditary and passed on to descendants.

Darwin:

In 1859 he published The Origin of Species, which explained the theory of...