Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Primary education

1) Respiratory Tract:

Passages through which oxygen enters the lungs and carbon dioxide is expelled.

• Nasal Passages: Air enters the nose and continues through these passages, where it is moistened and warmed. Dust and microorganisms in the air are retained here.
• Pharynx: Air from the nasal passages reaches the pharynx, which is part of both systems.
• Larynx: Made of cartilage. The vocal cords vibrate and enable humans to make sounds.
• Trachea: C-shaped cartilage rings through which air travels from the larynx to the bronchi.
• Bronchi and Bronchioles: Bronchi are two tubes that branch out from the trachea into each lung. They divide into small tubes called bronchioles, rounded sacs

Shoulder Injuries and Conditions

Glenohumeral Subluxation

Excessive translation of the humeral head without complete separation from the joint. May occur anteriorly, posteriorly, or inferiorly (most common is anterior).
Mechanism of Injury (MOI): Forced abduction and external rotation; direct blow to shoulder

Anterior Glenohumeral Dislocation

Head of humerus is forced out of its articular capsule past the glenoid and downward to rest under the coracoid process.
Injuries: Torn capsular and ligamentous tissue, possible rotator cuff and/or long head biceps tendon avulsion, possible injury to brachial plexus, possible tear (almost always a labral tear).
MOI: Direct impact to posterior shoulder, forced abduction and external rotation

Bankart Lesion

Detachment...

Phospholipid molecules form a bilayer - phospholipids are fluid and move laterally

Peripheral proteins are bound to either the inner or outer surface of the membrane

Integral proteins - permeate the surface of the membrane

The membrane is a fluid mosaic of phospholipids and proteins

Proteins can move laterally along membrane

Diffusion is the movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, and is the result of the random motion of particles.

Facilitated diffusion is similar to simple diffusion, except that it requires channel proteins or carrier proteins, which are specific to the molecules being transported across the plasma membrane from high concentration to low concentration.

Osmosis is the passive movement...

Histogenesis of Blood Tissue

Histogenesis refers to the origin and development of cells.

Development of Granulocytes (Myelopoiesis)

Granulocytes are cells with granular cytoplasm, including neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils (cells ending in -phil), and mast cells.

Stages of Granulocyte Development:

• Myeloblast
• Promyelocyte
• Myelocyte (stage when granules appear)
• Metamyelocyte

Origin of Blood Cells

All blood cells originate from the Hematopoietic Stem Cell. These cells differentiate after being stimulated by hormones or interleukins. For example, B-lymphocytes become plasma cells after being stimulated by IL-2 in order to fight infections.

Characteristics and Composition of Blood

General Characteristics of Blood

• Consists of blood plasma and matured blood

Synaptic Transmission Fundamentals

• Synapse: The gap between neurons (synaptic cleft).
• Synaptic Knob: The terminal structure containing vesicles.
• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit signals.
  • Acetylcholine: Activates muscles.
  • Monoamines: Involved in cognitive processes (emotion, arousal, memory).
  • Amino Acids, Peptides, and Estrogen.
• Vesicles: Store neurotransmitters.
• Axon Hillock: Essential for initiating the firing of a neuron (action potential generation).

Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP and IPSP)

• EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential): Moves the membrane potential toward the threshold.
• IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential): Moves the membrane potential away from the threshold.

Vision and Refractive Errors

• Nearsightedness (Myopia):
  • The eyeball

Neonatal and Pediatric Respiratory Disorders

An analysis of common respiratory conditions affecting newborns, including Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS), Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn (TTN), Meconium Aspiration Syndrome (MAS), Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia (BPD), Apnea of Prematurity, Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia, and Congenital Heart Disease.

Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)

RDS, also called hyaline membrane disease, is related to prematurity. The incidence increases with decreasing gestational age in the infant.

Major Factors in Pathophysiology

• Qualitative surfactant deficiency
• Decreased alveolar surface area
• Increased small airway compliance
• Presence of the ductus arteriosus

Clinical Manifestations

• Tachypnea
• Worsening retractions
• Paradoxical

Factors Influencing Drug Absorption

A) Factors Related to the Drug

a) Drug Properties

• Degree of Ionization: Highly ionized drugs are poorly absorbed.
• Lipid Solubility: High lipid-water partition coefficients increase absorption.
• Valency: Ferrous salts are absorbed more than ferric; Vitamin C increases iron absorption.
• Molecular Weight (MW): Low MW drugs have a faster rate of absorption; high MW drugs have a slower rate. Adding procaine to penicillin increases MW, decreases the rate of absorption, and prolongs action.

b) Pharmaceutical Form

Solutions are absorbed better than suspensions or tablets.

B) Factors Related to the Patient

• Route of Administration: Absorption from mucous membranes is very rapid from alveolar mucosa, less from sublingual, small

The Endocrine System

The endocrine is made up of coordinated groups of glands called endocrine glands. They are called endocrine because they release hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Hormones are chemical messengers that activate or stop, accelerate or delay many processes carried out by organs and tissues.

Health Diet (E.S)

Healthy diet, regulate moderate-intensity exercise, and don't consume drugs.

Health Diet

Healthy diet, exercise regularly, and practice correct postures.

The Control of Hormone Secretion

Feedback mechanisms in the endocrine system act similarly. When the amount of hormone in the blood reaches a specific level, a signal makes the gland stop releasing it.

How Hormones Work:

1. Stimulated endocrine glands respond by producing hormones

Cell Theory

Cells are the basic unit of life, all organisms are made up of 1 or more cells, and all cells arise from existing cells.

Contributors to Cell Theory

Hooke

Robert Hooke, a British scientist, first named cells in 1665. He observed cork with a microscope.

Scheiden

Matthias Jakob Schleiden, a German botanist, concluded that plants were made of cells.

Schwann

Theodor Schwann, a German zoologist, found that all living things are made of cells.

Leeuwenhoek

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch fabric store owner, ground a lens that magnified the microscope 200x's.

Virchow

Rudolf Virchow, a German doctor, disputed the idea of spontaneous generation (the idea that cells come from nothing) and concluded that cells come from other cells.

Cell Structures

Cell

Muscle Spindles: Sensory Encoding of Length and Velocity