Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Primary education

Saturated Fats

Carbon atoms fully saturated with hydrogen atoms. (meats, animal fats, lard, whole milk, butter, cheese, ice cream, coconut oil, palm oil)

Trans Fatty Acids

Solidified fat forms by adding hydrogen to MUFA and PUFA to increase shelf life

Osteoporosis

Condition of softening, deterioration, or loss of bone mineral density that leads to disability, bone fractures, and even death from medical complications

Protein

Classification for nutrients consisting of complex organic compounds containing nitrogen and forms by combinations of amino acids; the main substances used in the body to build and repair tissues

Amino Acids

Chemical compounds that contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; the basic building blocks the body uses to build different...

Continental Drift

Pangaea

Plankton

Holoplankton

Zooplankton

Meroplankton

Shark Anatomy and Physiology

Spiracles

Swim Bladder

Lateral Line

Cartilage

Operculum

Marine Reptiles

Crocodile Mothering

Marine Reptile Features

Mineral Trioxide Aggregate (MTA) Applications

Pulp Therapy

• Pulp capping
• Furcation repair
• Strip perforation repair
• Root resorption repair
• Immature teeth
• Root end filling material

Elements of Pulp Regeneration

Therapy for exposed dental pulps using stem cells and a biofunctional scaffold, inhibiting or eliminating infection to facilitate pulp generation.

Nickel-Titanium (NiTi) Rotary Instruments

Advantages of NiTi Reciprocation

• Mimics manual movement
• Reduces risks associated with continuous rotation in curved canals

Types of Posts

1. Carbon fiber epoxy resin posts
2. Zirconia posts
3. Glass fiber reinforced posts
4. Ultra-high strength polyethylene fiber reinforced posts

Advantages of NiTi Rotary

• Gradual, evenly tapered radicular preparation
• Fewer instruments required
• Reduced

Anatomy, Pathology, and Lab Essentials

Bones: Rigid organs that make up the skeletal system of vertebrates, providing support and protection for the body’s organs.

Cranium: The part of the skull that protects the brain.

Backbone: Also known as the spine or vertebral column, a flexible and strong structure running along the center of the back, made up of small bones called vertebrae.

Skull: A bony framework enclosing the brain of a vertebrate.

Joints: The points where two or more bones, or a bone and cartilage, are attached in the body.

Ligaments: Short bands of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissues that connect two bones or cartilages, or hold joints together.

Cartilage: Firm, flexible connective tissue found in various forms, from which the...

Characteristics of Sexual Reproduction

Human reproduction is sexual. This means that it's necessary for two individuals of different sexes to take part.

1. Each sex produces a different type of sex cell or gamete.
2. Fertilization is internal; it takes place inside the female reproductive system.
3. We are viviparous; the fetus grows in the mother's womb.
4. We are sexually dimorphic. This means that males and females have physical differences. This happens in many species.

Process of Reproduction

1. Gametogenesis: formation of the gametes.
2. Fertilization: joining of the male and female gametes.
3. Embryo Development: cell division and differentiation.
4. Childbirth: birth of the baby.
5. Development: cells increase and mature.

Changes in Adolescence

Adolescence begins with puberty,...

Sternocleidomastoid

Origin:

• Sternal head: Manubrium of sternum
• Clavicular head: Medial 1/3 of clavicle

Insertion: Outer surface of mastoid process, lateral 1/3 of superior nuchal line
Nerve Supply:

• Motor: Accessory nerve
• Sensory: C2, C3

Action:

• Both muscles contract: Flexes neck forward
• One muscle contracts: Bends neck to the opposite side and rotates to the same side

Relations:

• Superficial: Skin
• Deep: Carotid sheath

Digastric Muscle

Origin:

• Anterior belly: Lower border of mandible
• Posterior belly: Digastric notch of mastoid process

Intermediate tendon: Connected to hyoid bone
Nerve Supply:

• Anterior belly: Mylohyoid nerve
• Posterior belly: Facial nerve

Function:

• Anterior belly: Depresses mandible, elevates hyoid bone
• Posterior belly: Elevates hyoid bone, retracts mandible

Relations:

NUMERO QUATTRO: HT Family History

Contains the health condition of parents (grandparents), siblings and children of the patient; no wife/husband. Have to note the occurrence of inheritable diseases: haemophilia, spherocytosis, DM, hypertension, cancer, “obesity”?. Draw family tree and mark affected people, we can localize if the disease is dominant, recessive and linked to sex chromosome X. Examination of chest.

INSPECTION:

SHAPE: Barrel chest (expiration prolonged, difficult), Pigeon breast (protruding breast bone, common in rickets), Funnel breast (inward deformity of sternum), Kyphoscoliosis (curvature of the spine, common in childhood rickets, can compromise ventilation), general deformities (due to chronic pulmonary and pleural diseases...

Darwinism

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

Basic Principles of Darwinism

1. Individuals within a population have anatomical, physiological, and behavioral differences.
2. Each species produces more offspring than can survive to reproductive age, leading to competition.
3. Competition for resources (struggle for existence) explains why many offspring die.
4. Natural selection favors individuals with advantageous variations.
5. Surviving individuals pass favorable variations to their offspring.

Survival of the Fittest

Individuals with favorable characteristics survive and become more common, potentially leading to new species over generations.

Example: Giraffes

1. Giraffes initially had varied neck and leg lengths.
2. Natural selection favored

Passive Transport Mechanisms

Diffusion: Movement Down the Concentration Gradient

Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, aiming to equalize solute concentration. Diffusion occurs naturally because more particles move from the region of higher concentration toward the region of lower concentration.

Simple Diffusion

Simple diffusion enables substances to passively cross cell membranes from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration without using metabolic energy (ATP). Once the concentration of the substance is equal on both sides of the cell membrane, a state of equilibrium is reached.

Facilitated Diffusion

Large, charged, hydrophilic, and polar substances...