Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Other courses

Essential Health Concepts

Public health encompasses the activities and services aimed at promoting, protecting, and restoring the health of populations.

The Immune System

The immune system is a complex network of organs, cells, and molecules that defends the body against infectious agents and abnormal cells, including cancerous cells.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is the process of identifying a disease and determining its primary cause.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy involves the use of chemical drugs to combat disease.

Disinfectants and Antiseptics

• Disinfectants: Substances used to destroy microorganisms on objects.
• Antiseptics: Substances used to eliminate microorganisms that colonize tissues, such as skin.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or inhibit...

The Large Intestine

The large intestine is divided into:

• Cecum (Blind): Located after the ileum, contains the appendix.
• Colon: Divided into ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid sections.

Functions of the Large Intestine

• Absorbs water, forming feces. Feces consist of undigested food, few nutrients, and bile pigments.
• Synthesizes vitamins created by the intestinal flora. These flora digest substances we cannot and synthesize vitamins for us, a symbiotic relationship.

Rectum and Anal Canal

• Rectum: 15-20 cm in length.
• Anal Canal: 3 cm, opening to the outside through the anus.
• Anus: Contains two sphincters (muscle loops), one involuntary and one voluntary.

The Liver

The liver is located in the upper right quadrant, weighs approximately 1.5 kg, and...

Chlorhexidine and Chemical Plaque Control

Mechanism of Action of Chlorhexidine (CHX)

• Positive charge: Chlorhexidine has a positive charge, while bacteria have a negative charge.
• Binding: It binds with the phosphate groups of bacterial cell walls.
• Osmotic pressure: It alters osmotic pressure within the bacterial cell.
• Cell lysis: This alteration leads to bacterial cell lysis.

Therapeutic Uses of Chlorhexidine

• Adjunct to mechanical oral hygiene
• Treatment of Acute Necrotizing Gingivitis (ANG)
• Post-operative care after periodontal surgery
• Effective against fungi and viruses

Side Effects of Chlorhexidine

• Brown discoloration (staining) of teeth and restorations
• Bitter taste
• Mucosal erosion

Chemical Control of Subgingival Plaque

• Subgingival irrigation
• Controlled-release

Unit A: Mix & Flow of Matter

States of Matter

• Solid: Definite shape and volume
• Liquid: Indefinite shape, definite volume
• Gas: Indefinite shape and volume

Particle Model

Tiny particles with space, motion, attraction, and speed that increases with heat.

Mixtures

• Pure: 1 type (e.g., water)
• Mixture: 2+ substances
• Homogeneous: Uniform composition
• Heterogeneous: Visible parts

Solubility Terms

Solute + Solvent = Solution

• Saturated: No more dissolves
• Supersaturated: Extra dissolved

Viscosity

Resistance to flow. Increased temperature = decreased viscosity (in liquids).

Density

D = m / V. Generally: Solids > Liquids > Gases.

Buoyancy

• Float: If average density is less than the fluid.
• Archimedes’ Principle: Buoyant force = weight of fluid displaced.

Pressure

P = F...

Orthodontic Classifications

Angle Class II Malocclusion

• Class II, Division 1: Characterized by proclined upper incisors, lingual inclination of lower incisors, and a deep overbite. It often features a V-shaped palate, mandibular deficiency, abnormal muscle pressure, and mouth breathing.
• Class II, Division 2: Characterized by upper central incisors with lingual overlap by the lateral incisors and a deep overbite. It features a square upper arch, normal muscle pressure, and no mouth breathing.

Dewey’s Modification of Malocclusion

Class I Modifications

• Type 1: Crowded maxillary anterior teeth.
• Type 2: Maxillary incisors in labioversion (protruded).
• Type 3: Maxillary incisors in lingoversion (retruded).
• Type 4: Molars and premolars in buccal or lingual

Methods of Assessing Growth

• Physiologic Markers: Height and weight have limited predictive value for future growth rates.
• Pubertal Markers: Voice deepening (males) and menarche/breast development (females) are accurate but not applicable in dental clinics.
• Chronological Age: Girls (11.13 years) and boys (13.15 years) are convenient but do not correlate well with skeletal maturation.
• Dental Age: Panoramic X-rays show a weak correlation with puberty.
• Biological Skeletal Age (Most Accurate):
  • Skeletal Maturation Index (SMI): Uses adductor sesamoid via left-hand radiographs.
  • Cervical Vertebral Maturation Index (CVMI): Uses lateral cephalometric X-rays; CVMI 2 corresponds to SMI stage 4.

Concepts of Craniofacial Growth

• Cortical Drift: Bone deposition occurs

Premalignant Oral Lesions

• Erythroplakia:
  • Appearance: Flat, macular red patch.
  • Histology: Severe dysplasia, decreased keratin.
• Carcinoma In Situ:
  • Histology: Intact basement membrane, severe epithelial dysplasia (top and bottom changes).
• Oral Submucous Fibrosis:
  • Appearance: Red patch, ulceration, burning sensation.
  • Histology: Atrophic epithelium, dysplasia.

Malignant Oral Lesions

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)

• Common Sites: Lower lip, lateral border of tongue, floor of mouth.
• Clinical Forms: Ulcer, exophytic, red/white patches, trismus, bone destruction/pathological fracture, tooth mobility.
• Ulcer Criteria: Indurated base, necrotic floor, everted edges, bleeding, bad odor, firm consistency.
• Histology: Epithelial invasion into connective tissue, abnormal cell

Body Parts (Partes del cuerpo)

Internal Organs and Systems

• Bones (huesos)
• Airways (vías respiratorias)
• Lungs (pulmones)
• Skin (piel)
• Blood vessels (vasos sanguíneos)
• Mouth (boca)
• Spine (columna vertebral)
• Muscles (músculos)
• Stomach (estómago)
• Hair (cabello)
• Nails (uñas)
• Tendons (tendones)
• Heart (corazón)
• Nerves (nervios)
• Testicles (testículos)
• Nose (nariz)
• Hormone glands (glándulas hormonales)
• Ureter (uréter)
• Hypothalamus (hipotálamo)
• Oesophagus (esófago)
• Urethra (uretra)
• Intestines (intestino) large/small
• Ovaries (ovarios)
• Urinary bladder (vejiga urinaria)
• Joints (articulaciones)
• Penis (pene)
• Uterus (útero)
• Kidneys (riñones)
• Teeth (diente)
• Pituitary gland (glándula pituitaria)
• Vagina (vagina)
• Eyelashes (pestañas)
• Feet (pies)

External Body Parts

• Tongue (lengua)
• Pupil

Astringent Drugs

Gallae, Quercus infectoria, Fagaceae – use: astringent (in mouth)

Rathaniae radix, Krameria triandra, Krameriaceae – use: astringent (in mouth)

Quercus cortex, Quercus robur, Q. petraea, Fagaceae – use: astringent (hemorrhoids)

Hamamelidis folium, Hamamelis virginiana, Hamamelidaceae – use: astringent (skin)

Agrimoniae herba, Agrimonia eupatoria, Rosaceae – use: astringent (skin)

Bistortae radix, Polygonum bistorta, syn. Bistorta major, Polygonaceae – use: astringent

Tormentillae radix, Potentilla erecta, Rosaceae – use: astringent

Flavonoids

Crataegi folium cum flore, Crataegus laevigata, Rosaceae – use: cardiac insufficiency

Betulae folium, Betula pendula, Betulaceae – use: diuretic

Equiseti herba, Equisetum arvense,...

Anatomy and Physiology: Understanding Body Functions

Physiology is the study of how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions that exist in a living system. This is the general definition. Specifically, human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans. Most of the foundational knowledge in human physiology was provided by animal experimentation.

Physiology is closely related to anatomy. Anatomy is the study of form, and physiology is the study of functions. Physiology and anatomy are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem to provide a comprehensive understanding of living systems.

The Human Skeleton: Structure and Vital Roles

The...