Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Other courses

Biologia dos Peixes

Peixes são animais pecilotermos, cuja temperatura corporal varia de acordo com o ambiente. Respiram por brânquias, possuem nadadeiras e linha lateral, estrutura que permite perceber as vibrações do corpo. O sistema digestório é completo e a circulação é simples e dupla: o sangue passa apenas uma vez pelo coração e, nas veias, passa pelo fígado antes de retornar.

Condrictes

Os condrictes são peixes cartilaginosos, como tubarões, arraias, cações e peixes-serra.

• Elasmobrânquios: brânquias sem proteção por opérculo, como nos tubarões.
• Holocéfalos: possuem opérculo protegendo as brânquias, como as quimeras. A boca é ventral, não possuem bexiga natatória e, por isso, afundam ao parar. Excretam ureia, apresentam

Biology I: Arthropods

Arthropods

• Bilateral symmetry
• Segmented body
• Exoskeleton of chitin (impermeable)
• Dehydration prevention; growth bound to ecdysis (molting of the cuticle and periodic shedding)
• Jointed appendages (legs, antennae, palps, etc.)
• Open or lacunar circulation
• Nervous system: ganglionic (nodal), ventral, with varieties of sensory organs (tactile or chemoreceptor antennae, tactile bristles, compound eyes)
• Sexual reproduction or parthenogenesis (development without fertilization; e.g., some crustaceans, bees, fleas, scorpions)
• Most species present metamorphosis
• Gas exchange:
  • Gills (crustaceans)
  • Tracheae (insects, chilopods, diplopods)
  • Book lungs or foliaceous lungs (arachnids)

Main Groups

• Crustaceans (gills): shrimp, crabs, lobsters, pitu, woodlice

Diabetes and Glucose Regulation

Diabetes is a disease in which the glucose level in the blood is altered. This level increases because the body does not metabolize glucose properly.

Insulin: This hormone controls glucose levels in the blood and is produced by the pancreas.

Types of Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 Diabetes

• Characterized by the body producing little or no insulin.
• Onset typically occurs before age 40, often during childhood or adolescence.

Type 2 Diabetes

• Characterized by the body not producing enough insulin or not utilizing it well (insulin resistance).
• Onset typically occurs after age 40, and it is the most common type.
• Management involves diet, exercise, medication, and sometimes insulin injections.

Biotechnology and Recombinant Insulin

Recombinant

Biotechnology in Medicine

Growth hormone was previously obtained from the pituitary glands of cattle carcasses. In contrast, 2000 liters of bacterial culture can now produce the same amount of insulin that previously required 3000 kg of pig pancreas.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Genetic Diseases

Diagnosis

Techniques involve separating the strands of DNA to be studied and placing them in contact with the abnormal gene using fluorescent staining.

Gene Therapy

Gene therapy involves modifying abnormal genes to prevent the manifestation of diseases. This is achieved by inserting a correct copy of the defective gene into cells via a viral infection. However, gene therapy faces serious challenges:

• Vectors can cause infection.
• Risk of tumor development.
• Potential

Aldosterone: Functions and Physiological Impact

• Functions:
  • Circulatory and Renal Effects: Stimulates sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the distal tubule and collecting duct.
  • Water Retention: Facilitates water reabsorption, provided ADH is present to activate aquaporin-2 channels, thereby increasing extracellular fluid volume and blood pressure.
  • Hyperaldosteronism: Excessive secretion leads to significant potassium loss, which is critical for muscle and myocardial activity.
  • Hypoaldosteronism: Results in hyperkalemia, potentially causing severe cardiac disorders due to potassium imbalance.
  • Acid-Base Balance: Increases the secretion of hydrogen ions.
  • Extra-renal Activity: Similar activity occurs in sweat glands, salivary glands, and the

The Protozoa (Kingdom Protista)

Protozoa are unicellular organisms classified within the Kingdom Protista. There are more than 30 million species living in diverse habitats. In each case, the relationship with the host can range from a strictly coincidental union to a parasitic one. Many serve as a staple food source for other animals and even other protozoa.

They are microscopic organisms ranging from 0.4 microns to 1 mm, though macroscopic species can measure up to several millimeters. Some fossils from the Secondary and Tertiary periods, such as Orbitolina, reached up to 12 cm. Some flagellate protozoa contain chlorophyll and resemble green algae, leading botanists to classify them as such. This kingdom was first proposed by Ernst Heinrich...

Cell Theory: Fundamental Principles

Cell Theory is built upon three main ideas:

• All living things are composed of cells and their products. Therefore, cells are the morphological units of living beings.
• The fundamental activities that characterize life occur within cells. Therefore, cells are the physiological or functional units of living beings.
• New cells are formed from other preexisting cells through cell division.

Comparing Plant and Animal Cells

Plant Cell Characteristics

• Possesses large vacuoles.
• Features a rigid cell wall.
• Contains plastids (e.g., chloroplasts, which perform photosynthesis, making the cell autotrophic).
• Absence of centrioles.
• During cell division, cytokinesis occurs outwards.

Animal Cell Characteristics

• Contains centrioles.
• Has small

Eye

Cornea

1. Anterior corneal epithelium
2. Bowman's membrane
3. Stroma
4. Descemet's membrane
5. Corneal endothelium

Choroid

1. Vascular layer (arteries and veins around conjunctiva lax with melanocytes)
2. Choriocapillaris layer (capillary network in 1 flat)
3. Bruch's membrane

Retina

1. Nerve fiber layer
2. Ganglion cell layer
3. Inner plexiform layer
4. Inner nuclear layer
5. Outer plexiform layer
6. Outer nuclear layer
7. Outer limiting membrane
8. Rod and cone layer
9. Pigment epithelium

Eyelids

(Outside to inside):

1. Skin and dermis of TCL
2. Bundles of striated muscle (orbicularis oculi muscle)
3. Thickened set at the ends (eyelid plates with meibomian glands)
4. Mucous layer (conjunctiva)

Glands: Moll (sweat), Meibomian and Zeis (sebaceous)

Inner Ear

Above the sensory epithelium of the macula are otoliths (calcium carbonate...

Gastrointestinal Infections

Infectious gastroenteritis and bacterial contamination of foods: Salmonella enterica (eggs, meat), Clostridium perfringens (stews), Staphylococcus aureus (salted foods), Clostridium botulinum (fish).

Infections from water and food-borne microorganisms: Vibrio cholerae (cholera), E. coli (diarrhea, hemorrhagic colitis), Campylobacter jejuni (abdominal cramps, diarrhea), rotavirus (infectious diarrhea).

Upper and Lower Respiratory Tract Infections

Respiratory tract infections: caused by bacteria and viruses.

Upper Respiratory Tract

Pharyngitis: caused by viruses or bacteria (Streptococcus pyogenes, tonsillitis). Diagnosis: antigen detection and culture.

Common cold: caused by viruses (rhinovirus).

Diphtheria: Corynebacterium

Metabolism

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions and energy processes taking place in a cell to meet its needs for material and energy. We differentiate between:

• Catabolism: The degradation of organic matter to release energy.
• Anabolism: The synthesis of complex chemicals using simpler ones, which consumes energy.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is a complex process that enables the transformation of glucose to extract the energy contained within it.

• Location: Cytoplasm.
• Oxygen Requirement: Does not require oxygen (anaerobic).
• Organisms: Performed by both autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms.

It consists of 10 reactions, each catalyzed by a specific enzyme, transforming one glucose molecule into two 3-carbon molecules of pyruvic acid.

Stages of Glycolysis

• 1st