Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Baccalaureate

Medical and Demographic Notes: Part 1

Social Sciences Definitions

Demographics

Population sciences studying their geographical distribution.

Statistics

Science where knowledge of a phenomenon is based on measurement results.

Economy

Studies the ways in which individuals and society use obtained resources and services.

Psychology

Science that studies psychic functions in normal and abnormal aspects.

Digestive System Facts

Digestion

The splitting of complex food materials.

Pylorus Statement (Evaluation)

FALSE: The pylorus is the passage that allows food from the esophagus to the stomach.

Small Intestine Components (Evaluation)

FALSE: The duodenum, jejunum, and appendix are located in the small intestine. (Note: Duodenum and jejunum are parts of the small intestine;

Biological Tissues and Systems

• Elastic Cartilage: Found in the auricle, auditory ducts, epiglottis, and larynx.
• Bone Tissue: A living structure formed by intercellular material impregnated with inorganic salts. Bone is constantly remodeling and serves as a significant reservoir for calcium and phosphorus.
• Dentin: Similar to bone, but covered by enamel, the hardest material in the human body.
• Blood: A circulating liquid tissue that transports nutrients throughout the body and removes waste products.
• Hematopoietic Tissue: Red bone marrow responsible for blood cell formation.
• Lymphoid Tissue: Found in lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils, and adenoids; vital for immune system development and function.
• Reticuloendothelial System: A network of connective

Living Beings

Living organisms are defined by their complex structures and their ability to perform the three vital functions.

Key Features

• Spontaneity and Intent: They act with purpose to fulfill vital functions.
• Complex Composition: Composed of organic matter (C, H, O, N) and inorganic matter (minerals, H2O).
• Cellular Structure: Organized into cellular units.
• Biological Information: Structure and functional information are stored in nucleic acids.
• Homeostasis: The ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment.

Theories on the Origin of Life

Spontaneous Generation

Historically, it was believed that life could originate from inert material, a theory supported by Aristotle and Van Helmont. However, Francesco Redi disproved this using meat...

The Lamarckian Theory of Evolution

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck set out a detailed conception of the theory of evolution and its mechanisms. The Lamarckian theory, which can be synthesized in the expressions: "evolution creates the organ" or "environmental influence," can be summarized as follows:

1. The environment, where living things develop, is subject to change, disrupting life within the system and the needs of the organisms inhabiting that environment.
2. Changes in environmental needs produce changes in behavior, developed to meet new necessities.
3. In turn, behavioral change requires changes in the anatomical or physiological structure of living organisms.

The Darwinian Theory of Evolution

The reason Charles Darwin's name is associated with the idea of...

Cellular Response

Cellular response - Cell-mediated immunity is a form of adaptive immune response mediated by T lymphocytes. It acts as an attack mechanism against intracellular microorganisms, such as viruses and some bacteria, that can survive and proliferate inside phagocytes and other host cells. The defense against such infections depends on cellular immunity, which induces the destruction of the organism living in phagocytes or infected cells.

A phagocyte captures an element, becoming a macrophage. After several processes, helper T cells are created and activated, which perform cytotoxicity (lysis of target cells by cytotoxic T cells) and regulation of the immune response by T helper cells.

Primary and Secondary Immune Response

Primary and

**We Manage the Disease**

*Pathology*

Pathology, the science of disease, is the basis of diagnosis.

• Etiology studies the causes of diseases.
• Pathogenesis investigates the mechanism of action of the disease.
• Pathological anatomy seeks to know the outcome of the disorder and injuries.
• Pathophysiology analyzes the functional changes that the patient undergoes.

Clinical Signs and Symptoms

The clinic studies the signals that reveal the disease. Signs include pulse, artery pressure, and temperature. Symptoms and investigations provide additional information, such as radiographs.

**Infectious and Parasitic Diseases**

Infectious and parasitic diseases are caused by biological pathogens.

• Incubation is the time from the entry of the pathogen into the body until

Arquenteron

The primary digestive tract.

Blastocoele

The cavity within the blastula, located between the ectoderm and endoderm; also known as the segmentation cavity.

Blastoderm

A layer of cells (blastomeres) forming the wall of a blastula; also known as a blastodisc.

Blastodisc

A blastula where the blastomeres form a disk floating on an unsegmented yolk.

Blastomere

A cell of the embryo during the early stages of cell division.

Blastopore

The opening between the blastomeres of the blastula that leads into the interior of the embryo during gastrulation.

Blastula

An embryo that results from the segmentation (cleavage) of a fertilized egg.

Coelom

A fluid-filled cavity produced by the approximation of lateral mesoderm plates.

Neural Crest

Groups of cells on both...

Protein Definition

A protein consists of amino acids linked together. Each amino acid has a central carbon atom attached to an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable radical group (side chain).

Protein Classification

Proteins can be classified based on their composition:

• Holoprotein: Composed solely of amino acids.
• Heteroprotein: Composed of amino acids along with other non-amino acid molecules (prosthetic groups).

Amino Acids

Amino acids are organic compounds characterized by having both a carboxyl group (-COOH) and an amino group (-NH2). They are typically solid, crystalline substances with high melting points, soluble in water, and possess optical activity. Their chemical behavior is amphoteric, meaning they...

Chagas Disease and Trypanosoma Cruzi

Chagas disease is an infection of mammals and triatomines caused by the protozoan flagellate Trypanosoma cruzi. It circulates in the form of trypomastigotes in the blood of infected people or animals. It is important to note that birds are refractory and immune to the infection.

Agent and Transmission

The transmitter agents are blood-sucking insects, the most important and widespread being Triatoma infestans, which constitutes the insect vector. The mammalian host can be humans and some domestic or wild animals. In its various hosts and in culture media, T. cruzi has three fundamental morphological aspects: trypomastigote, epimastigote, and amastigote.

The Evolutionary Cycle of Trypanosoma Cruzi

Triatomines become...