Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Baccalaureate

Recognize the following words and give Pinyin for them:

• 住院 zhùyuàn
• 学期 xuéqī
• 专业 zhuānyè
• 基础 jīchǔ
• 时间 shíjiān
• 要求 yāoqiú

Make up sentences with the given words:

• 这学期你们开了几门课？我想去医院看朋友。
• 窗户上挂着一个牌子。在病历里夹着吗？什么时候可以出院？
• 我昨天晚上一点才睡觉。学校下个星期六开运动会。我们留学生可以参加吗？

Choose the proper words to fill in the blanks:

• 你的解剖实验报告写完了吗？
• 星期一我已经把请假条交给老师了。
• 还是不能确定是肺癌还是肺结核。
• 这是一部关于中国历史的电影。
• 上星期卡瓦不是来借过你的词典吗？

Common rescue drugs for allergic shock:

• Immediately subcutaneous

The structural organization of eukaryotic cells is remarkably complex and compartmentalized, reflecting the diverse functions these cells perform. Eukaryotes encompass a wide array of organisms, including plants, animals, fungi, and protists. Below is a detailed exploration of the structural components of eukaryotic cells:

1. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)

• Composition: The cell's outer boundary is formed by a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins and other molecules.
• Function: It regulates the passage of substances into and out of the cell, acting as a selective barrier.

2. Cell Wall (in some cells)

• Present in: Plant cells, fungal cells, and some protists.
• Composition: A rigid structure made of cellulose in plants and chitin in fungi.
• Function:

Plant Anatomy: Roots, Stems, and Leaves

Root Structure

The root has a simple structure with no central bone. It contains vascular tissue in the phloem and wood beams, along with fundamental bark tissue. The endodermis clearly demarcates these areas. Two meristems are present: the cambium, which forms a ring of dividing cells between the phloem and wood, and the phellogen, which develops in the cortical parenchyma. The phellogen produces corky tissue layers for protection and cortical parenchyma internally.

Stem Structure

Stem structure differs between dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants. In dicots, vascular tissue forms a cylinder with the xylem inside and phloem outside. Fundamental tissue is located between the epidermis and vascular tissue...

Emerging and Reemerging Diseases

Emerging diseases are caused by previously unknown germs. These germs may have been hidden or have mutated. An example is Ebola.

Reemerging diseases are those that reappeared after a period of decline. Examples include cholera, tuberculosis, dengue, and malaria.

Outbreaks and Spread

An epidemic outbreak is the rapid spread of an infectious disease affecting many people in a limited area and time.

A pandemic is an epidemic affecting many parts of the world.

Key Concepts

A syndrome refers to the complex and variable damage caused by infectious agents.

A reservoir is an animal that harbors infectious agents transmissible to humans, such as rodents.

A vector is an animal that transmits germs to a healthy person, such as...

Anatomy and Physiology Fundamentals

Anatomical Terminology

• Anatomical Descriptors
  • Anterior — at or near the front of the body
  • Posterior — at or near the back of the body
  • Midline — imaginary vertical line dividing the body equally
  • Lateral — farther from the midline
  • Medial — nearer to the midline
  • Superior — toward the head or upper part of a structure
  • Inferior — away from the head or lower part of a structure
  • Superficial — close to the surface of the body
  • Deep — away from the surface of the body
  • Proximal — near the origination of a structure
  • Distal — farther from the origination of a structure
  • Contralateral — on the opposite side
• Anatomical Planes
  • Sagittal — body divided into left and right halves by a vertical plane passing through

Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection

The principal merit of Darwin's theory, in addition to the many evidence that he provided to it, is the discovery of the mechanism that governs the entire evolutionary process of species: the natural selection.

1. Firstly, when environmental resources become scarce, an inevitable competition occurs and, consequently, the struggle for survival begins in which most individuals die.
2. Secondly, it is also obvious that individuals of the same species have different features or characteristics that appear randomly and make individuals different from each other.
3. Third, these characteristics make some individuals more advantaged than others. Those whose characteristics are favorable to the demands of the environment

Blood Tissue

Blood is a tissue fluid that flows through the veins and arteries of all vertebrates. Its characteristic red color is due to the presence of the pigment hemoglobin in red blood cells.

Blood has a solid phase and a liquid phase, represented by the plasma. Its main function is the logistics of distribution and systematic integration.

Blood consists of formed elements and blood plasma.

Platelets

Platelets are small cell fragments (2-3 um in diameter), oval and without nuclei. They are produced in the bone marrow from the fragmentation of the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes. Their normal quantitative value is between 150,000 and 450,000 platelets per mm3.

They serve to plug injuries that could affect blood vessels. Platelets contribute to clot...

The Nervous System

Consisting of two types of cells:

• Neurons: consist of neuronal bodies, Dendrites (extensions where the nerve impulse enters the body), and axons.
• Glia (or Neuroglia): Made by the supporting structure of the nervous system, they collaborate in nutrition and feeding of neurons.

Nervous System Division

Central Nervous System (CNS), peripheral nervous system, autonomic (or vegetative) nervous system.

Central Nervous System

Comprising:

• Brain: Located in the skull, it consists of an internal gray substance and an external white substance. Surrounded by 3 membranes called meninges: Piamater, Arachnoid, Dura mater.

Parts:

• Cerebrum: Divided into hemispheres (left and right), weighing between 1200 and 1600g. It includes frontal, parietal, occipital,

Stages of Embryonic Development

A key feature that differentiates living things from non-living things is the ability to reproduce. Reproduction occurs through cell division. In more complex organisms, this includes sexual and asexual reproduction. The essential phenomenon is mitosis in plants and animals. Sexual reproduction involves meiosis, the process of gamete formation, or specialized cells for reproduction, with the participation of individuals of different sexes. Genetic and hormonal events, along with synchronization mechanisms, ensure the release of gametes for successful fertilization. This is followed by a series of events that characterize successive development and differentiation, transforming the egg or zygote into an adult individual....

1. Introduction to Fermentation Technology

Fermentation technology uses microbial cells (or their enzymes) to convert raw materials into valuable commercial products. While originally associated with anaerobic processes (like the production of alcohol), industrially it includes any process utilizing microorganisms to yield a desired product under controlled aerobic or anaerobic conditions.

History and Development

The evolution of fermentation technology is generally divided into three major eras:

• Ancient/Empirical Era (Pre-1850s): For thousands of years, humans used fermentation instinctively to make bread, wine, beer, and cheese without understanding the science behind it.
• The Pasteur Era (1850–1900): Louis Pasteur proved that fermentation is