Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Baccalaureate

Kidney and Urinary Tract Conditions

Renal Failure Explained

Renal failure signifies insufficient filtration of blood at the Malpighian glomeruli. This leads to reduced urine production and inadequate elimination of excretory substances.

Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, seizures, and fainting. If untreated, it can lead to death.

Common causes include:

• Renal injuries
• Deficient blood pressure in the kidneys
• Urine retention due to an obstruction in the urinary tract

Nephritis: Kidney Inflammation

Nephritis is kidney inflammation resulting from infectious or non-infectious causes. Symptoms typically include pain, goosebumps, and fever.

Cystitis: Bladder Inflammation

Cystitis refers to inflammation of the bladder, generally caused by an infection. It results...

Human Receptors and Nervous System

Receptors: Structures that human beings use to detect stimuli.

Interoceptors

Collect information about the body’s internal conditions. Located in the internal environment.

Exteroceptors

Provide information from the body’s outside environment. Located on the surface of the body.

Proprioceptors

Inform about the relative position and condition of each of the body’s muscles. Found in the inner ear’s vestibule and locomotive system.

Eyes/Sight

Detect light stimuli. Photoreceptors

Ears/Hearing

Detect sound waves (Mechanoreceptors) and proprioception.

Nose/Smell

Detect substances dissolved in the air. Chemoreceptors

Mouth/Taste

Detects substances dissolved in liquids found in the oral cavity. Chemoreceptors

Skin/Touch

Detects...

What is Genetic Engineering?

Genetic engineering is the direct modification of an organism’s genome, which is the list of specific traits (genes) stored in the DNA. Changing the genome enables engineers to give desirable properties to different organisms. Organisms created by genetic engineering are called genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

What is Biotechnology?

Biotechnology is the use of organisms and their genetics in industries to make products.

How is it Possible?

Because all living organisms have DNA, by moving DNA from one organism to another, it is possible to transfer different traits.

The GMO Process

• All genetic changes affect the protein synthesis of the organism.
• By changing which proteins are produced, genetic engineers can affect

Human Body Systems

1. Respiratory System: The purpose of this system is to take in air, filter it, and take it to the tissues responsible for gas exchange. Oxygen is then transported by blood to all the tissues in the body. Carbon dioxide, a waste product, is reabsorbed and excreted from the body.
2. Skeletal System: This system forms the basic framework of the body. It supports and protects all internal organs. Bones serve as levers (with the attached muscles) for movement, produce blood cells, and store calcium salts, which can be absorbed into the blood when there is not enough calcium in the diet.
3. Endocrine System: The secretion of hormones, which regulate the body's functions chemically, is the function of this system.
4. Urinary System: This system

Sintesis is called like that cause dna sts is taking place. Daughter cell trought mitsis=46. Cancer spend less time in interphase. Dna replication in interphase. Growth cell in g1. Cell g0= cerebral cortex. Most cells spend in interphase. Divide and dont die cancer. Function and decide typr of cell=differentation. Human sommatic= 46 crhomo  crossing over meiosis mix genes. Half crhomo=haploid. Full=diploid. No stem cell =gamete stem cell. Mult 100-150 cells embryonic stem cell. Tissues cells adult stem cell. Stem is medical because is undiferentiated. Sperm cells meiosis. Overall meiosis to make 4 unike haploid from a diploid. Meiosis only occurs in reproductive organs. Homozygous=pair. Observable traits=phenotype. Allele pairs=genotype. Crossing...

Nervous Coordination and the Neuron System

Nervous coordination is carried out by the nervous system. This system is made up of nerve tissue whose cells, called neurons, are capable of transmitting information through nerve impulses.

Structure and Function of Neurons

Neurons are typically divided into three main parts:

• Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and other essential organelles.
• Dendrites: Short, branch-like projections that receive signals.
• Axon: A longer projection that transmits signals away from the cell body. It ends in a series of slender branches that widen slightly at the tip, called axon terminals.

In general, axons are protected by a white substance called myelin. The axons of various neurons sometimes group together to form nerve

Essential Biological Definitions: Blood, Systems, and Pathology

Blood Components and Characteristics

Chordae Tendineae: "Heart Strings"

These are fibrous cords that connect the papillary muscles to the cusps of the atrioventricular valves (mitral and tricuspid valves) in the heart.

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

The primary function of erythrocytes is oxygen transport.

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Leukocytes are crucial components of the immune system, defending the body against infection and disease.

Granulocytes

Their cytoskeleton contains visible granules.

Agranulocytes

The cytoskeleton lacks granules. There are two main kinds:

• Lymphocytes: Possess large spherical nuclei.
  • T Lymphocytes: Found primarily in the lymph; they attack tumor cells.
  • B Lymphocytes:

Fundamental Ecological and Biological Concepts

Biodiversity: The Variety of Life

Biodiversity refers to the varying or different life forms found on Earth. It encompasses several types:

• Genetic Diversity: The variety of genetic materials within a species or a population.
• Species Diversity: The number and abundance of species present in different communities.
• Functional Diversity: The biological and chemical processes, such as energy flow and matter recycling, needed for the survival of species, communities, and ecosystems.
• Ecological Diversity: The variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on the Earth.

Evolution: Changes in Organism Genetic Makeup

Evolution refers to the changes in a population of organisms' genetic makeup...

c) Antigen Processing and Presentation

• Engulf protein antigens, partially digest them, and display polypeptide fragments on the surface for T cells to "see."
• Fragments are associated on the surface with Major Histocompatibility Antigens (MHC II), which are necessary to activate T cells.

d) Dendritic Cell Migration

To increase the chance of interacting with the correct T cells, dendritic cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs (chemokines are secreted to attract T cells).

VII. Extracellular Killing by the Immune System

A. Natural Killer (NK) Cells

NK cells lyse virus-infected cells, tumor cells, and parasites. They kill cells that do not express MHC class I antigens.

B. Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity (ADCC)

1. In ADCC, NK cells and macrophages

Antibody Functions

• Precipitation: Binds to soluble molecules so they become insoluble.
• Neutralization: Binds to and prevents the activity of viruses or toxins.

Fc Region Binding

• Phagocytes: Facilitates opsonization and stimulates cytokine release.
• Complement proteins: Stimulates complement fixation, which triggers MAC formation.

Diversity of Antibodies

• Each person has approximately 10²⁰ antibody molecules with millions of different specificities.
• It is likely that an antibody exists for any antigen a person might encounter.
• Mechanisms of diversity:
  • Genetic recombination: Combinations of hundreds of genes coding for heavy and light chains lead to millions of unique antibodies.
  • Somatic hypermutation: Diversity increases via a high rate of single base pair