Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

Alfonso XIII's Reign and the Crisis of Restoration in Spain

This period can be placed within the reign of Alfonso XIII and the crisis of the Restoration, a consequence of the regency of Maria Christina of Austria and the Disaster of 1898.

At the end of the 19th century, the regime established by Cánovas, the liberal-conservative party, was shaken by a severe crisis, since it lost the last Spanish colonies: the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. The Restoration was fully in line with European colonial imperialism. Booming finance capitalism drove the great powers to form colonial empires around the world, mimicking Great Britain.

In parallel, Spain became involved in an internal crisis, the Disaster. The loss of the colonial empire was considered...

Hellenistic Philosophy (4th - 3rd Century BC)

Spread of Hellenism:

Following Alexander the Great's empire and the subsequent tyrannies after his death, philosophers shifted their focus towards the pursuit of happiness. Major post-Aristotelian schools of ethics emerged, including:

1. Epicureanism
2. Stoicism
3. Skepticism

In Alexandria, under the Ptolemaic dynasty, philosophy and science flourished with figures like Aristarchus of Samos, Archimedes, and Euclid. This marked a shift away from Athens as the center of intellectual activity. While the Academy and the Lyceum continued, no major figures emerged after Plato and Aristotle.

1. Epicureanism:

Founded by Epicurus of Samos, this school focused on ethics, physics, and logic.

Key tenets:

• Happiness: Defined as

The comment text can be made to distinguish the rules of the method, so we can say that for Descartes, the method is the set of "rules certain and easy, thanks to whom that will not ever look exactly the false for real and reach, without spending unnecessarily effort of the mind, but science always gradually increasing, the true knowledge of anything that is capable of." The method should serve to discover new truths, not to prove what has already been found. The four rules of method are:

• Evidence: The Criterion of Truth

  Do not accept anything as true unless we know with evidence that it is. The evidence consists of clarity and distinction. We must avoid two fundamental defects in the search for truth: precipitation and prevention.

  • Precipitation:

Expository and Argumentative Texts

The study of text types often begins with the fundamental concepts of exposition and argumentation.

Defining Expository Texts

The purpose of expository texts is to inform and provide knowledge about a topic. Their primary didactic goal is to help the receiver understand an idea or expand their existing knowledge.

Expository writing must be orderly, clear, and objective, often mastering the referential function of language. We commonly find these texts in encyclopedias, newspaper articles, and conferences.

Types of Expository Texts

Expository texts can generally be grouped into two main categories:

• Informative Texts: These report clearly and objectively about a topic of general interest and should be easy to understand.

Understanding the Six Functions of Language in Communication

Roman Jakobson's model identifies six key functions of language, each emphasizing a different factor in the communication process. These functions help us analyze how language is used to convey meaning and achieve specific communicative goals.

Emotive (Expressive) Function of Language

• Factor Emphasized: The sender's attitude or emotions.
• Communicative Intent: To express the sender's feelings, opinions, or attitudes.
• Communication Features:
  • Family or colloquial language (conversations, letters)
  • Journalistic language (opinion articles, interviews)
• Specific Linguistic Forms:
  • Interjections, exclamatory sentences
  • First-person pronouns and verb forms
• Example: "What a headache I have! Oh, how beautiful!

Hominization: The Path to Humanity

Hominization is the process through which primates, our ancestors, gradually acquired the physical structure of humans. This involved a series of morphological changes affecting their bodies, changes observed in the fossil record. Significant morphological changes include:

• Lengthening of the hip.
• Development of bipedal walking legs.
• Atrophy of the lower jaw and masseter muscles (releasing the skull).
• Increasing complexity of the brain (leading to greater intelligence).
• Development of the hand, particularly the thumb (allowing the use and manufacture of tools).

Humanization is the process by which our ancestors acquired culture, the elements that constitute civilization. This involves not physical changes, but cultural...

The Nueva Planta Decrees

The end of the War of the Spanish Succession meant the triumph of centralizing and standardizing absolutism. A new organization of the monarchy was established in the kingdoms defeated in the war. It was considered that the best way to govern was with the same laws and institutions, all dependent on the Crown. This new form of government came through the Nueva Planta Decrees, abolishing the privileges of Aragon and Valencia, as a result of the military occupation after the Battle of Almansa. The second decree was promulgated in 1715 for Mallorca, and for Catalonia in 1716. Only the Basque Country and Navarre maintained their historic privileges as a reward for their loyalty to Philip V.

The organization of the territories...

South American and North American Massifs

Brasilia Massif

The Brasilia Massif is the most extensive plateau in South America, with the largest area of outcrop. Fractures are caused by the Amazon and La Plata rivers, which, on their journey, navigate the uneven terrain with jumps and falls. To the west, it is dominated by high and low plateaus. Biomes include forest and savanna. The population is sparse, mostly concentrated in the coastal strip.

Patagonian Massif

The Patagonian Massif covers the Andean Patagonia, south of the Colorado River. It presents as a large stepped plateau, descending from the Andes to the Atlantic, culminating abruptly in a steep coast. Its external appearance is varied, featuring plateaus, river valleys, ravines, and low,...

Understanding Narrative Text Structures

A narrative is a type of text that includes real and imagined events.

Narrative Pacing: Condensation and Expansion

Narrative pacing varies based on techniques like chaining:

• Condensation

  Events are presented in a condensed way, often utilizing narrative ellipses.

• Expansion

  The narrative is delayed or even paused to include additional elements, such as descriptions. The action slows down to focus on character traits.

Narrative Structure: External and Internal

In a narrative, both external structure (chapters, parts, treatises) and internal structure are distinguished.

Types of Narrators: First, Second, and Third Person

• Third-Person Narrator Perspectives

  • Omniscient: All-knowing.
  • Observer: Only reports what can be seen.

Pretrial Detention

Pretrial detention is recognized as a necessary evil in all legal systems. It represents the most serious interference that state power may exercise in the sphere of an individual's freedom without a criminal conviction. A strong justification is needed to warrant it. It consists of the total deprivation of the accused's fundamental right to freedom of movement through their confinement in a prison facility for the conduct of criminal proceedings. It is implemented when it is the only way to ensure the normal course of criminal procedure. The only constitutionally legitimate purposes that detention may serve are to prevent the flight of the accused, which might hamper the investigation, and to prevent the concealment or destruction...