Spain's Political Transformation: 1917, 1898 Crises & 1876 Constitution
Spain's Triple Crisis of 1917
The political system of the Restoration definitively entered a period of profound crisis, marked by a triple challenge:
Social Crisis and Growing Inflation
The growth of inflation led to strong social conflict. The UGT (General Union of Workers) and CNT (National Confederation of Labour) launched a manifesto calling for a general strike.
Revolutionary Military Crisis
Discontent was generated among lower and middle-ranking officers. Defense juntas were formed, demanding wage increases and opposing promotions based on war merits, advocating seniority as the sole criterion.
Political Crisis
In response to these challenges, the Constitutionalist government suspended freedoms and closed the Cortes (parliament). Catalan nationalists in Barcelona reacted by creating the Parliamentary Assembly, an alternative parliament.
The Spanish Constitution of 1876
This constitution was based on the moderate Constitution of 1845. The text was conservative but included some details of tolerance, reflecting the proximity of the 20th century:
Shared Sovereignty and Royal Power
Sovereignty was shared between the Cortes and the King. There was no strict division of powers; this was nuanced, as the King held significant powers.
Bicameral Legislature
The legislature was bicameral, consisting of the Senate and Congress, with the former largely controlled by the King.
Confessional State with Religious Tolerance
The state recognized and subsidized the Catholic Church. However, tolerance was allowed for other religions.
Declaration of Freedoms
A broad declaration of freedoms was included, though these were often restricted by subsequent laws.
Suffrage Evolution
Initially, census suffrage was used. In 1890, universal male suffrage was imposed, though its effectiveness was often qualified by caciquismo (political bossism).
The Crisis of 1898 and the Restoration System
This profound crisis affected all areas of Spanish society: economic, social, international, and political.
Economic Crisis
Occurring in the last decade of the century, the trigger was an agrarian crisis following the collapse of wine production and the decline of Spanish wheat due to competition from other countries outside Europe. The country was affected by inflation, currency depreciation, and a collapse of exports. This necessitated the imposition of a protectionist policy to support domestic industrial and agricultural producers in the internal market.
Social Crisis
The economic crisis caused a significant increase in unemployment, leading to widespread worker and peasant unrest.
Crisis of International Relations
Spain had pursued a policy to avoid being caught up in international conflicts. However, it was forced to sell Pacific islands to Germany, while a few years earlier it had lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The sinking of the North American battleship Maine served as an excuse for the Americans to declare war. In the Treaty of Paris, Spain formally gave up its remaining empire. This situation led to strong national pessimism.
Political Crisis
This crisis was exacerbated by the death of its two great leaders (Sagasta and Cánovas), the stalled process of modernization, and the appearance of new nationalist and socialist forces that exposed the archaic nature of the old oligarchic system. The Regenerationist Movement arose, seeking to solve the country's problems and achieve moral and economic recovery. One of its theorists summarized its goals in the slogan "Pantry and School." This movement significantly influenced the writers of the Generation of '98.