Relative Clauses: Structure, Function, and Usage
Relative Clauses: Definition and Function
Relative clauses, also known as substantive clauses, function like nouns within a sentence, always complementing the main proposition.
We refer to the noun or pronoun that the relative clause modifies as the antecedent of the clause. The relative clause connects to its antecedent using relative pronouns, relative adjectives, or relative adverbs.
Relative Pronouns
- Simple: who, whom, whose, which, that, what
- Compound: whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever
Relative Possessive Adjective
whose (also inflects for gender and number in some languages, e.g., Spanish: cuyo, cuya, cuyos, cuyas)
Examples of Relative Clauses
Here are examples illustrating the use of relative pronouns and their antecedents:
- I gave the news to his friends who were very surprised.
- We found Mary that seemed affected.
- There was a dog barking which scared us.
Note: In addition to serving as a connector (nexus), relative pronouns also play a syntactic role within the subordinate clause itself.
The Antecedent
The antecedent is usually a noun, but it can also be:
- A pronoun: E.g., That is why we watch.
- An adverb: E.g., Let there, that is where I live.
- A noun phrase (e.g., 'lo' + adjective in some languages): E.g., I do not know what love is.
- An adverbial phrase functioning as a noun: E.g., I was surprised how quickly he became known.
Headless Relative Clauses
Headless relative clauses are sometimes presented without an explicit antecedent because it is either unknown or not relevant. The antecedent is implied.
- E.g., It made me think (implied: 'things').
- E.g., Anyone who knows (i.e., 'the person who knows') should say.
Observations on Relative Pronoun Usage
- Quien (-es) (who/whom) can only refer to antecedents (expressed or implied) that are people.
- The indefinite pronoun todo/a/os/as (all) may precede compound relative pronouns. E.g., The group formed several proposals, all of which were approved.
- The phrase 'all that' (e.g., todo lo que in Spanish) can sometimes be replaced by 'cuanto' (as much as/all that). E.g., Cuantos asistieron (= todos los que asistieron) se fueron satisfechos. (All who attended went home satisfied).
- Relative pronouns can sometimes be preceded by prepositions. E.g., The house in which I was born, the man to whom I spoke, the woman with whom I traveled, etc.
The Relative Possessive Adjective: Cuyo/a/os/as
The relative possessive adjective cuyo/a/os/as (rarely used in English as 'whose', but common in Spanish) indicates possession.
- E.g., Students whose last names begin with A will go to classroom 202.
Whose indicates that the surname belongs to the students, thus functioning as a possessive adjective by referring to the noun 'surname'.
The Relative Adverbs
Relative adverbs where and when can function similarly to relative pronouns that and which.
- E.g., I do not remember where (= in which place) we met.
- We studied the way (= in which) to get out of there.
- In the years when (= in which) I was young, everything was easy.
Types of Relative Clauses
Restrictive (or Specifying) Clauses
These clauses select or identify the antecedent. They are essential to the meaning of the sentence.
- E.g., Councilors who did not support the mayor voted against. (Implies only those specific councilors voted against).
They are usually not separated by commas from the antecedent.
Non-Restrictive (or Explanatory) Clauses
These clauses provide additional, non-essential information about the antecedent. They can be removed without changing the fundamental meaning of the main clause.
- E.g., The councilmen, who did not support the mayor, voted against. (Implies all councilmen voted against, and the clause adds extra info about them).
They are usually separated by commas.