Political Philosophy: Kant, Hegel, and Marx Analyzed

Kant's Social Contract

Kant argues that individuals should enter the State not only out of prudence but because it is their moral duty. The State is necessary as an indispensable authority that regulates the arbitrary actions of individuals. Kant defines the State as the union of a multitude of people under legal laws. In Kantian philosophy, the State reserves the exclusive power to enact laws.

Critique of Hegel

Hegel criticized contractarian theory, despite acknowledging the merits of the State form. Following the French Revolution of 1789, which established a modern state, Hegel questioned the forces capable of reviving a people. The German philosopher's response centers on Reason, which holds a substantially different meaning than the ratio found in contractarianism.

Hegel posits that Reason is a force—a principle that determines everything in the universe. In this sense, it resembles the Christian notion of God, yet Reason is not immutable; it evolves over time. Hegel believed the highest expression of Reason on Earth was the Prussian State, an ideal society governed entirely by reason and justice.

The Critique of Marx

Karl Marx addresses the same fundamental questions as Rousseau while incorporating concepts from Adam Smith. Smith viewed society as a series of exchanges characterized by a technical division of labor, where product distribution originates from the workers.

In capitalism, workers provide labor, while capitalists provide machinery, land, and money. Marx notes that the value of produced goods is greater than the value of the wages paid to workers. This difference is known as surplus value. According to Marxist theory, the social relationship defining capitalist society is the purchase and sale of labor power, which creates social inequalities.

Marx compares the State to an apartment building:

• Infrastructure (Foundations): Comprised of economic relations between workers and capitalists.
• Superstructure (Departments): The legal and political order that legitimizes unequal social relations of production.