The Ominous Decade and the Rise of Carlism in Spain

The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

The period known as the "Ominous Decade" (1823-1833) in Spanish history was marked by a new restoration of absolutism. This era witnessed the suppression of all constitutional reforms initiated during the Liberal Triennium. The Inquisition was not restored, but the government engaged in ruthless political repression against liberals. The state debt worsened, and ultra-royalist factions gained prominence. The reign saw the rise of figures like A. Reg, even reaching the point of revolts. The problem of succession became acute due to Ferdinand VII's childlessness after three marriages. To address this, Queen Maria Cristina published the Pragmatic Sanction, nullifying the Salic Law, which radicalized ultra-absolutists.

Emancipation of Spanish America

Causes:

• Aspirations of the Creoles (Spaniards born in America with economic power).
• Diffusion of Enlightenment and Liberal ideas.
• Repercussions of the United States' independence.
• Commercial monopoly exercised by the Iberian Peninsula.
• Decline in the prestige of the crown and power vacuum during the War of Independence.

Stages:

• 1808-1814: Formation of juntas similar to those in Spain, but with significant Creole representation; declarations of independence began in 1810.
• 1814-1824: Ferdinand VII sent troops to regain control, initially succeeding but facing instability. The campaigns of liberators like San Martín and Bolívar in Peru, the Liberal Triennium in Spain, and support from the U.S. and England encouraged rebel victories. The final victory at the Battle of Ayacucho led to the independence of all Spanish American territories except Cuba and Puerto Rico.

The Liberal Opposition System

Origins:

After the death of Ferdinand VII in 1833, a dynastic conflict emerged between supporters of his brother, Carlos, and his daughter, Isabel. This political conflict pitted liberals, who sought reforms and the abolition of absolutism, against absolutists, who wanted to maintain the Ancien Régime. The Basque provinces and Navarre clung to their historical privileges, which granted them substantial self-government, including military exemptions, fiscal autonomy, and their own civil law.

These issues led to a division into two main political factions:

• Carlists: Advocated for absolutism, defense of the Ancien Régime, and supported Carlos. Their social base included the clergy, peasantry, traditional artisans, and regions like the Basque Country, Navarre, parts of Catalonia, and Aragon, which sought to preserve their fueros (charters).
• Isabelinos: Supported a constitutional monarchy, equality before the law, economic and social reforms to dismantle the Ancien Régime, and Isabel. Their support came from the business bourgeoisie, sections of the nobility, and major cities, including some Carlist areas and the southern half of the peninsula.

The First Carlist War (1833-1839)

Outbreak:

The war began four days after the death of Ferdinand VII, with Carlos's manifesto from Abrantes.

Characteristics:

The war was characterized by guerrilla tactics, the absence of fixed fronts (except in the Basque Country and Navarre), and great cruelty towards the civilian population.

Phases:

• 1833-1835: Initial Carlist successes under General Zumalacárregui.
• 1835-1837: Large-scale Carlist expeditions aimed to expand the conflict.
• 1837-1839: Carlist decline due to resource depletion and strong support for the Elizabethan cause from France and Great Britain.

Denouement:

Human and military exhaustion, coupled with the impossibility of achieving a decisive victory, led both sides to seek an agreement. The Convention of Vergara, signed by Espartero (Liberal) and Maroto (Carlist), stipulated that the Carlists would surrender their arms, and their soldiers could join the liberal army or retire with a pension. The liberals committed to respecting the fueros. Consequences included the promotion of Espartero as a national hero and leader of the progressives. Intransigent Carlist sectors rejected the agreement and continued the war in the Maestrazgo region under the leadership of Cabrera. The Basque and Navarrese charters were cancelled in 1841, although fiscal quotas, military exemptions, and private law were maintained.

Carlism After 1839

The Second Carlist War (1846-1849) had a limited scope in Catalonia. It was triggered by the rejection of a dynastic union proposal by liberals.

The Third Carlist War:

This war resulted from the Carlist rejection of Amadeo I, focusing on the Basque Country and Navarre to recover their charters. The final defeat led to the suppression of the Basque and Navarrese charters, although the quota system was maintained.